NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

 

We explore how formal managers' centralities in both positive and negative networks predict followers' perceptions of their leadership. By incorporating social networks and social ledger theory with implicit leadership theories (ILTs), we hypothesize that formally assigned group leaders (managers) who have more positive advice ties and fewer negative avoidance ties are more likely to be recognized as leaders by their followers.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

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Further, we posit that managers' informal networks bring them greater social power, an important attribute differentiating leaders from non-leaders. We conducted two survey-based studies in student and field teams to test the hypotheses. Based on nested data in both studies, we found support for our hypotheses. These results remain robust across the two studies even though they used different designs (cross-sectional versus longitudinal), different samples (field versus students) across different countries (United States versus India), and a host of control variables at both the leader and follower levels. We find that managers who are central in the advice network are socially powerful and are seen as leaders by individual followers. In contrast, managers who are avoided by followers lack informal social power are not seen as leaders. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our findings and the ways in which our theory and results extend ILTs and social network theory. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Here at CHLA, we believe every child deserves to enjoy all those special moments that childhood has to offer, free from pain and suffering. This is what inspires our staff to be their best—and they’re equipped with everything they need to succeed. If you want to help create more special moments for children where you’re empowered to deliver the highest quality of care, this is the place to do it. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Founded in 1901, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles is one of the nation’s leading children’s hospitals and is acknowledged worldwide for its leadership in pediatric and adolescent health. Children’s Hospital Los Angeles is one of only 10 children’s hospitals in the nation—and the only children’s hospital on the West Coast—ranked in all 10 pediatric specialties by U.S. News & World Report and named to the magazine’s Honor Roll of children’s hospitals.

Children’s Hospital Los Angeles is a premier teaching hospital and has been affiliated with the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California since 1932. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

The CINAHL Plus with Full Text database is an unfiltered database containing over 700 nursing and allied health related journals. While the database itself is unfiltered, you can still use it to find evidence-based practice resources, including systematic reviews. You can also use it to find unfiltered resources, including randomized controlled trials, case studies, and other primary research studies.

On this page you will learn how to limit your results in CINAHL to:

systematic reviews
randomized controlled trials
cohort studies
case studies
other document types
Set up your search
When searching for complex topics, you'll want to use multiple search terms and Boolean operators, both in the search boxes and between the search boxes, to get the best results. To learn more about Boolean operators, please see this Quick Answer: NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Quick Answer: What are Boolean operators?

Here is an example of how to put together a complex search in CINAHL:

On the Library homepage, go to the Subject Resources box.

Click on Select a subject and choose: Nursing.
Click on the Evidence based & clinical resources section and choose CINAHL Plus with Full Text database.

Note: If you have not already logged in to the Library databases, you will be prompted to log in with your myWalden Portal user name and password. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Once you are in the database, use the search boxes to enter your keywords. For example, in the first search box, enter:

Neonatal OR NICU

Note: You can use OR to link together your synonyms, or related words, in a search box, allowing the database to search more broadly.

In the second search box enter:

Handwashing OR "Hand Washing" OR "Hand Rubs" OR "Hand Disinfection"

Note: Putting quotation marks around phrases tells the database to search for these words as a phrase and not as individual words. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

In the third search box enter:

"Infection Control" OR "Cross Infection"

Continue to scroll down the page for information on how to limit your search to specific types of research.

Systematic reviews
CINAHL contains many systematic reviews published in journals.

Once you have set up your search, here is how you can limit your results to only systematic reviews in CINAHL:

Scroll down the page below the search boxes until you find the Publication Type box.
In the Publication Type box select Systematic Review by finding it in the list and clicking on it (it will then be highlighted). NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

.
Click on the Search button to run your search.
Randomized controlled trials
Randomized controlled trials are the studies commonly used to support systematic reviews and are a high level of evidence. They are usually one of the easiest study types to find in any nursing or medical database. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Once you have set up your search, here is how you can limit your results to only randomized controlled trials:

Scroll down the page below the search boxes until you see Randomized Controlled Trials.
Click in the check box below Randomized Controlled Trials.

Then click on the Search button to run your search.
Cohort studies
Cohort studies are a type of longitudinal study, or observational study, that analyze risk factors by following groups that share a common characteristic or experience over time. Since these studies have a long-term component, they promote a better quality of evidence than a shorter study. There are also fewer of them, and they can be harder to find. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Here is an example of a search for a cohort study in CINAHL:

Set up your search. For example, in the first search box you could enter:

Neonatal

In the second search box, enter any additional keywords. For example, you could enter:

"Infection Control"

Note: Putting quotation marks around phrases tells the database to search for these words as a phrase and not as individual words. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

In the third search box enter:

"Cohort Study"

z

Then click on the Search button to run your search.
Case studies
A case study, or case report, is a research method involving a detailed investigation of a single individual or a single organized group. Case studies may be prospective (in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available) or retrospective (in which criteria are established and cases are selected from historical records for inclusion in the study).

Once you have set up your search, here is how you can limit your results to only case studies: NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Scroll down the page below the search boxes until you find the Publication Type box.
In the Publication Type box select Case Study by finding it in the list and clicking on it (it will then be highlighted).

.
Click on the Search button to run your search.
Other filters in CINAHL
CINAHL Plus with Full Text offers a number of filters or limiters that can help you find only specific types of studies.

Scroll down the page below the search boxes to locate these filters or limiters. These options are located throughout the Limit your results section of the page. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Clinical Queries
This filter can be used find articles that are clinically-sound. The five options are:

Therapy
Prognosis
Review
Qualitative
Causation (Etiology)
To get the most results, select all three sub-divisions: High Sensitivity, High Specificity, and Best Balance.

Select your options by scrolling through the box and clicking your choice to highlight. Hold down the Ctrl key to select multiple options.

Publication Types
This limiter box allows you to select specific article types. We've already shown how to use this limiter for systematic reviews and case studies; other useful publication types for evidence-based practice include Clinical Trial and Meta Analysis. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Select an option by finding it in the list and clicking on it (it will then be highlighted).

Research Article
This checkbox limits your search to research studies containing data collection, methodology, and conclusions.

Click in the check box below Research Article to select this option.

This site provides statistics and reports on Social Security, Medicare, housing, long-term care, poverty level, caregiver estimates and more on a state-by-state level.
ABI/INFORM Collection Some journals are peer reviewed
ABI/INFORM Collection offers over 2,000 full text resources including peer-reviewed journals, trade publications, business news, reports, and working papers. Topics include all aspects of international business, such as business trends, management practice and theory, corporate strategy and tactics, and the competitive landscape. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Academic Search Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
Academic Search Complete is a multidisciplinary database containing peer reviewed journals, conference papers, newspapers, magazines and other resource types. This database can be a good starting place for topics that cross many subject areas.
Academic Video Online (AVON) This database offers video content.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: AVON
Academic Video Online (AVON) is a multidisciplinary collection of videos of virtually every video type: documentaries, interviews, performances, news programs and newsreels, field recordings, commercials, demonstrations, original and raw footage including tens of thousands of exclusive titles. There are thousands of award-winning films, Academy,® Emmy,® and Peabody® winners plus newly released films and previously unavailable archival material.
Accounting, Tax & Banking Collection Some journals are peer reviewed
ProQuest Accounting & Tax brings together highly ranked global and scholarly journals with key resources for locating quick and precise results covering current news and topics, as well as the trends and history influencing important accounting and tax issues of the day. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
ACM Digital Library Some journals are peer reviewed
ACM Digital Library is a comprehensive collection of publications put out by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). It includes a 50+year archive of over 40 ACM journals, magazines, and peer-reviewed articles as well as ACM conference proceedings and ACM SIG newsletters.
Agricola Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
From the National Agricultural Library, search books and articles in agriculture related subjects like food and nutrition, natural resources and environment, and laws and regulation. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
American National Election Studies Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The American National Election Studies website provides survey data on public opinion, voting, and more. Registration and agreement to terms is required, however downloading of data is free. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Annie E. Casey Foundation Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Offers data on indicators affecting children and families in the United States, including education, family and community, and well-being. Downloadable into graphs and reports.
Annual Reviews
This collection offers comprehensive, timely collections of critical reviews written by leading scientists. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
B
BioMedCentral Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. All journals are peer reviewed
Science, technology, and medicine publisher of over 290 peer-reviewed journals in Biology, Clinical Medicine and Health.
Bloomsbury Open Archives 2008-2012 Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Bloomsbury Open offers selected research publications in the humanities and social sciences which are published on open content licenses (Creative Commons and Bloomsbury Open license). For other years, use the following links Bloomsbury Open 2013, Bloomsbury Open 2014, Bloomsbury Open 2015,and Bloomsbury Open 2016
Bureau of Justice Statistics Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The Bureau of Criminal Justice Statistics contains United States’ criminal justice statistics. Information on crime, criminal offenders, victims of crime, and the operation of justice systems at all levels of government can be found on this site. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Business Market Research Collection
The database contains profiles of 40,000+ companies, 600 industries, and 225,000 key executives; It includes company overviews, company histories, officers, board members, products/operations, historical financials, and more.
Business Plans Handbook
The Business Plans Handbooks contain sample business plans created by entrepreneurs seeking funding for small businesses.
Business Source Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
The Business Source Complete database contains both practical and scholarly business information. You can search Business Source Complete for full text scholarly journal articles, case studies, company profiles, reports, conference papers, financial data, and SWOT analyses. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
C
Child Care & Early Education Research Connections Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Data sets from series and individual studies focusing on child development available for download and online analysis.
Child Stats Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Publishes annual report “America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being.” Provides data on children by age group, ethnicity, economic status, and family structure. From the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics.
Child Trends Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Reports on national trends and research on over 100 key indicators of child and youth well-being.
Children's Defense Fund Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Contains extensive list of fact sheets/data with indicators pertaining to children divided by state, including child welfare, early childhood development, education, and youth at risk.
Chronicle of Higher Education (The)
The Chronicle of Higher Education is a source for news, information, opinions, and jobs relevant to college and university students, faculty members, and administrators.
CINAHL & MEDLINE Combined Search Some journals are peer reviewed
CINAHL stands for Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature and includes peer-reviewed articles, reports of evidence-based practice, case studies, systematic reviews, and more.
CINAHL Plus with Full Text Some journals are peer reviewed
Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature: a large collection of journals and e-books on many nursing and allied health topics.
CiteSeerX Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
CiteSeerx is an evolving scientific literature digital library and search engine that has focused primarily on the literature in computer and information science. CiteSeerx aims to improve the dissemination of scientific literature and to provide improvements in functionality, usability, availability, cost, comprehensiveness, efficiency, and timeliness in the access of scientific and scholarly knowledge. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials
This collection includes reports published in conference proceedings and in many other sources not currently listed in MEDLINE or other bibliographic databases. This index of controlled trials and other healthcare interventions serves as the best available resource for those preparing and maintaining systematic reviews or searching for trials. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
An independent, well-respected source of evidence to inform healthcare decision making. Includes full-text PDF versions of the Cochrane Reviews and the Cochrane Protocols.
Cochrane Methodology Register
The register indexes studies relevant to the methods of systematic reviews of healthcare and social interventions. This database includes journal articles, book chapters, conference proceedings, conference abstracts, and reports of ongoing methodological research.
Communications and Mass Media Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
This database contains full text articles in the area of communications, public relations, and mass media studies. It also includes profiles of noted authors in the field.
Comparative Agendas Project Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
This website collects information on policy changes across countries. Data may be exported into customizabel charts.
Computer Science Database Some journals are peer reviewed
Whether you're an expert in the field or an undergraduate, ProQuest Computing delivers vital information directly to your desktop from scholarly journals and trade publications as well as consumer titles. The database includes product reviews, database design and management, software, hardware, e-commerce, website development, intranets and extranets, and technology management.
Computers and Applied Sciences Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
This database contains journals covering the many engineering disciplines, computer theory & systems, new technologies, and social & professional context. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Counseling and Psychotherapy Transcripts, Client Narratives, and Reference Works
This searchable collection containing real transcripts of therapy and counseling sessions and first-person narratives illuminating the experience of mental illness and its treatment, as well as reference works to contextualize the primary material.
Counseling and Therapy in Video (See Academic Video Online ) This database offers video content.
Counseling and Therapy in Video: Volume V This database offers video content.
The collection helps recognize mental health disorders and provide accurate diagnoses via 400+ streaming mental health videos aligned to DSM-5®/ICD-10 content. Films are used to introduce and improve understanding, recognition, and diagnosing of psychiatric disorders as well as improve clinical competency. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
CQ Researcher
CQ Researcher provides in-depth reports on current events and topics of current interest. Each report provides historical background on the topic, outside commentary, pro/con arguments, chronological information, and a substantial bibliography. CQ Researcher addresses a wide range of topics including legal, political, and social issues, communication and mass media, health, education, science, and technology. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Criminal Justice Database Some journals are peer reviewed
The Criminal Justice database contains a wide selection of journals on criminal justice, family law, drug enforcement, and rehabilitation. It contains full text journals and periodicals.
Criminological highlights Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
An open source Toronto-based publication, produced by academics, faculty, and librarians, which focuses on current criminological research. Archived from 1998 to present. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
D
Data USA Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Visualizations of U.S. government data.
Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Open Access database that includes critical appraisals of systematic reviews, particularly those addressing the effects of health interventions. While DARE doesn't include the full text of the systematic reviews, it does include citations to the original research.
Note: This is the archived version. The site was last updated March 31, 2015. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Digital National Security Archive (DNSA)
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: DNSA
Digital National Security Archive unlocks a vast trove of important declassified U.S. government documents providing vital primary source material to advance research in twentieth century history, politics, and international relations.
Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: DOAB
Free, academic books from over 100 publishers. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. All journals are peer reviewed
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: DOAJ
Free, full text, quality controlled scientific and scholarly journals. They cover all subjects and languages. There are over 6000 free, full-text available journals in the directory.
Disability Statistics Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Created and maintained by the Employment and Disability Institute, Cornell University. Includes an interactive search tool.
Dissertations & Theses @ Walden University
The database contains full text of dissertations and theses written by Walden students. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
E
E-Stats Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: E-Commerce Statistics
E-Stats is the U.S. Census Bureau's Internet site devoted exclusively to "Measuring the Electronic Economy." This site features recent and upcoming releases, information on methodology, and background papers. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
EBSCO ebooks
Access full-text e-books covering a wide variety of topics. The collection includes theoretical works, primary source materials, writing and research guides, technical help books, reference materials, and more.
EDGAR Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis, and Retrieval system
EDGAR, the Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis, and Retrieval system, performs automated collection, validation, indexing, acceptance, and forwarding of submissions by companies and others who are required by law to file forms with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Its primary purpose is to increase the efficiency and fairness of the securities market for the benefit of investors, corporations, and the economy by accelerating the receipt, acceptance, dissemination, and analysis of time-sensitive corporate information filed with the agency. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Education Commission of the States Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Search Education Commission of the States' database. Browse by education issue, legislation, or search the knowledge base for any topic. ECS partners with education policy leaders to address issues by sharing resources and expertise.
Education Research Starters Some journals are peer reviewed
Education Research Starters contain brief overviews of popular education topics.
Education Source Some journals are peer reviewed Popular
Education Source covers all levels of education--from early childhood to higher education as well as all educational specialties such as multilingual education, health education, and testing. It is the world's largest and most complete collection of full-text education journals with many peer-reviewed titles. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Embase New
Coverage of biomedical literature worldwide that includes MEDLINE, plus many conference abstracts and EU journals not found elsewhere. Particularly strong in drug and pharmacology information.
Emerald Insight All journals are peer reviewed
Emerald is a leader in publishing management research for both the scholar and the practitioner. Be sure to search within My subscribed content to find full-text content.
ERIC Some journals are peer reviewed Popular
ERIC, maintained by the US Department of Education, indexes over a million journal and non-journal sources focused on education research, including including work produced or funded by the U.S. Department of Education, other federal departments, state or local agencies, policy organizations professional associations, and more.
ERIC and Education Source Combined Search Some journals are peer reviewed
Search ERIC, a database of 1.3 million bibliographic records maintained by the US Department of Education, and Education Source, one of the largest collections of full-text education journals, at the same time. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an intergovernmental organisation set up for the promotion of free trade and economic integration to the benefit of its four Member States: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland.
Eurostat Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: European statistics
Eurostat is the statistical office of the European Union situated in Luxembourg. Its task is to provide the European Union with statistics at European level that enable comparisons between countries and regions.
Expanded Academic ASAP Some journals are peer reviewed
Expanded Academic ASAP contains many peer-reviewed journal articles and periodicals on most Walden subject areas, including psychology, business, criminal justice, and the social sciences. This database contains some full text.
Export.gov Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Export.gov brings together resources from across the U.S. Government to assist American businesses in planning their international sales strategies and succeed in today’s global marketplace.
F
F1000 Research Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Open source, peer reviewed articles as well as posters and slides in science fields including health and medicine.
FAO Document Repository Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
FAO documents and publications, as well as selected non-FAO publications, in electronic format. It includes publications dealing with food, food security, agriculture, aquaculture, forestry, and rural development. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
FDsys (See GovInfo)
Federal Agency Participation Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
This website, hosted by the United States government works to make federal data accessible to the public.
FindLaw Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
FindLaw provides free, general information regarding various aspects of United States law. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Free Medical Journals Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Indexes over 4000 free, full text journals from various medical publishers.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
G
Gale Virtual Reference Library
The collection has encyclopedias and specialized reference resources.
General Science Collection Some journals are peer reviewed
General Science Collection features recent articles focusing on recent events and discoveries in science. The collection ranges from general science journals to specialized publications. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
General Society Survey (NORC) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The General Social Survey is a sociological survey designed to track changes in attitudes, practices, and experiences in the United States.
Google Books Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
You might find a free, full text book or limited preview at Google Books, along with options to buy print and digital copies.
Google Public Data DIrectory Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Google collects publically available data from organizations like Eurostat, OECD, U.S. Census Bureau and World Bank and offers visualizations of this data. Users may also upload their own datasets to create visualizations. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
GovInfo (formerly FDsys) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
GovInfo is the United States government's database of government documents, covering documents and records from all three branches of the federal government.
GreenFILE Some journals are peer reviewed
GreenFILE offers well-researched information covering all aspects of human impact to the environment. Its collection of scholarly, government and general-interest titles includes content on the environmental effects of individuals, corporations and local/national governments, and what can be done at each level to minimize these effects. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
GuideStar
GuideStar is the world’s largest source of information on nonprofit organizations. It includes financial, contact, mission, and leadership information on every nonprofit registered with the IRS as tax-exempt.
Guttmacher Institute Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
The Institute produces a wide range of resources on topics pertaining to sexual and reproductive health. See also the "Data Center" page. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
H
HathiTrust Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
HathiTrust contains both full text and non-full text books. Many books in HathiTrust are not available in Google Books.
Health and Environmental Research Online (HERO) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
The Health and Environmental Research Online (HERO) database contains peer-reviewed scientific literature used by the Environmental Protection Agency to produce assessments. The literature relates to human health and ecological risk topics.
Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HaPI)
The Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HaPI) database provides information about approximately 15,000 measurement instruments. The full text instruments are NOT included in HaPI. Instead this database is used to discover instruments on a topic, track the history of an instrument over time, and find publisher information.
Health Services and Sciences Research Resources (HSRR) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
A database from National Information Center on Health Services Research and Health Care Technology for research datasets and instruments.
Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: HCUP
Longitudinal hospital care data in the United States from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ).
Highwire Press (Stanford Univ) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
Facilitates access to 1.9 million full text articles mainly in the (bio)medical sciences. Most journals provide free access to back issues older than 12-24 months. Some journals also provide access to current issues. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Homeland Security Digital Library
This database contains over 82,800 documents related to homeland security policy, strategy, and organizational management from a wide variety of sources including federal, state and local governments; international governments and institutions; nonprofit organizations and private entities. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Hoover's Company Profiles (see Business Market Research Collection)
Hospitality & Tourism Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
This collection covers scholarly research and industry news relating to all areas of hospitality and tourism. Hospitality & Tourism Complete contains nearly 950,000 records, with coverage dating as far back as 1965. There is full text for more than 530 publications, including periodicals, company & country reports, and books.
I
IBISWorld
Research reports on industries in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and China. Reports include analysis of industry drivers, risk, market data and segments, competitors, and industry performance. Includes Business Environmental Profiles that summarize key drivers for industries in the U.S. Global industry reports for selected industries are also available.
IBM Technical Paper Search Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
IBM's Technical Paper Search provides the scientific community with access to technical reports written by members of the IBM Research community. Some reports are available for download. Once a technical report is published in either a journal or conference proceedings, it is sometimes replaced with a reference to the external source. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
ICPSR - Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research Datasets
ICPSR offers more than 500,000 digital files containing social science research data. Disciplines represented include political science, sociology, demography, economics, history, gerontology, criminal justice, public health, foreign policy, terrorism, health and medical care, early education, education, racial and ethnic minorities, psychology, law, substance abuse and mental health, and more. Contact the Center for Research Quality for assistance with ICPSR.
ICT Statistics Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: ITU-D
The Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) fosters international cooperation and solidarity in the delivery of technical assistance and in the creation, development, and improvement of telecommunication and ICT equipment and networks in developing countries. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
IEEE Xplore Digital Library Some journals are peer reviewed
This database contains IEEE online society-sponsored journals, transactions and magazines including peer-reviewed journals focusing on practical applications in research, design and specification, scientific and technical content, and electrical engineering, computer science and electronics.
ILOSTAT Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: International Labour Organization
ILO’s central statistics database ILOSTAT provides information for for cross-country statistics on the labour market. The database contains over 100 indicators covering more than 230 countries and economies.
International Federation of Social Workers Archives Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The International Federation of Social Worker's (IFSW) archive contains information dating back to 1846. The archives contain historical documents, newsletters and photos.
International Security and Counter Terrorism Reference Center Some journals are peer reviewed
International Security and Counter Terrorism Reference Center is an in-depth database that offers information on security & counter-terrorism. Content for ISCTRC includes hundreds of full-text journals and periodicals, thousands of selected articles, news feeds, reports, summaries, books, FAQs, and Background Information Summaries pertaining to terrorism and security.
IRMA International Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: Information Resources Management Association
The Information Resources Management Association (IRMA) welcomes professionals, students, and academicians to search thousands of peer-reviewed works covering all areas of technology applied to modern organizations. Aiming to enhance knowledge of current topics in Information Resources Management, Research IRM, powered by InfoSci-OnDemand, makes thousands of proceedings papers, scholarly journal articles, and book chapters available for download. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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Joanna Briggs Institute EBP Database
Systematic reviews, evidence summaries, and best practice information sheets developed by an Australian-based university research and development institution.
K
Kaiser Family Foundation Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Public opinion and research statistics on public health and healthcare policy.
Kids Count Data Center
Offers data on indicators affecting children and families in the United States, including education, family and community, and well-being. Downloadable into graphs and reports. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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LearnTechLib--The Learning and Technology Library Some journals are peer reviewed
This database provides access to peer-reviewed education technology and e-learning journals; It also has conference proceedings and e-books.
LegalTrac Some journals are peer reviewed
LegalTrac contains articles from major law reviews, journals, and legal newspapers on Federal and State Cases, Laws and Regulations, Legal Practice, and Taxation. Coverage includes British Commonwealth, European Union and International Law. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
LexisNexis Academic (See Nexis Uni)
LGBT Life with Full Text Some journals are peer reviewed
LGBT Life with Full Text contains abstracts and full text articles focused research on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender issues. It contains full text for more than 120 of the most important and historically significant LGBT journals, magazines and regional newspapers, as well as more than 150 full-text monographs/books.
Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts Some journals are peer reviewed
LISTA indexes more than 560 core journals, nearly 50 priority journals, and nearly 125 selective journals; plus books, research reports and proceedings. Subject coverage includes librarianship, classification, cataloging, bibliometrics, online information retrieval, information management and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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Market Share Reporter
This comprehensive book presents comparative business statistics in a clear, straightforward manner. Market Share Reporter affords an immediate overview of companies, products, and services, and cites original sources. A convenient arrangement by four-digit SIC code helps business decision makers and researchers easily access needed data for more than 2,000 entries. Each entry features a descriptive title; data and market description; a list of producers/ products along with their market share; and more.
MEDLINE with Full Text Some journals are peer reviewed
Millions of references to journal articles in life sciences with a concentration on biomedicine; indexed with the National Library of Medicine’ Medical Subject Headings (MESH). NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Mental Measurements Yearbook with Tests in Print
Mental Measurements Yearbook with Tests in Print contains reviews of over 3,000 commercially available, English language testing instruments. Reviews contain information about the reliability, validity, and publication details of the testing instruments. A score index that allows users to easily identify what is being measured in individual tests and bibliographic information is also included. Testing instruments fall into many categories such as psychological tests, career inventories, intelligence and aptitude, and personality. There are no full text testing instruments in this database. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Merck Manual Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Merck Manuals provide medical information, diagnostic criteria, and clinical decision support for healthcare providers and patients in ten languages, separated into professional and consumer versions. Browse by topic, symptoms, emergencies, drug information, news & commentary. The Professional version also has case studies and quizzes.
MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. This database offers video content. Some journals are peer reviewed
MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching) is a free online collection of learning materials and exercises submitted by community members designed to enhance and inspire the online teaching experience. There are over 40,000 pieces of content spanning from case studies, assessment tools, online course modules, reference material, tutorials, syllabi, as well as many others in over 21 different fields of study. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Military and Government Collection Some journals are peer reviewed
Military & Government Collection provides full text for nearly 300 journals and periodicals. The database also offers indexing and abstracts for more than 400 journals. Topics include news on all branches of military and government as well as homeland security.
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NAMI Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: National Alliance on Mental Illness
Holds infographics with statistics on mental health facts for children, teens, and adults in the United States. Focuses statistics on prevalence of mental illness, consequences of lack of treatment, and social statistics. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
National Academies Press Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Hundreds of books which can be downloaded as pdf for free by the chapter or the entire book. Topics include: Agriculture, Behavioral and Social Sciences, Conflict and Security Issues, Education, Energy, Environmental Studies, Food & Nutrition, Industry and Labor. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
National Bureau of Economic Research
Founded in 1920, the National Bureau of Economic Research is a private, nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization dedicated to promoting a greater understanding of how the economy works. The NBER is committed to undertaking and disseminating unbiased economic research among public policymakers, business professionals, and the academic community.
National Center for Health Statistics Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Provides well-organized fact sheets of mental health statistics on topics such as morbidity, ambulatory care visits, and hospital inpatient care. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Provides microdata from researchers and national data collections about child abuse and neglect in free data sets for secondary analysis. From Cornell University.
National Science Foundation, The Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: NSF
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency created by Congress in 1950 "to promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense...". The NSF provides federally supported basic research conducted by America's colleges and universities. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
NCES Publications Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Contains publications from the National Center for Education Statistics. NCES is the primary (U.S.) federal entity for collecting and analyzing data related to education.
Neuroscience Information Framework Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Provides a wide variety of data, materials, and tools on neuroscience topics. Categories include datasets, disease, drugs, and people.
Nexis Uni (formerly LexisNexis Academic)
Nexis Uni provides full-text access to legal news, company information, regulations, law reviews, case law, and other legislative information. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
NTIS Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: Public National Technical Reports Library
The National Technical Information Service serves as the largest central resource for government-funded scientific, technical, engineering, and business related information available today. NTIS provides businesses, universities, and the public timely access to approximately 3 million publications covering over 350 subject areas. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
NTRL Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: National Technical Reports Library
The National Technical Information Service serves as the largest central resource for government-funded scientific, technical, engineering, and business related information available today. Through NTRL, NTIS provides businesses, universities, and the public timely access to approximately 3 million publications covering over 350 subject areas. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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OECD iLibrary Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD iLibrary is the online library of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) featuring its books, papers and statistics and is the gateway to OECD’s analysis and data. It also contains content published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), the OECD Development Centre, PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment), and the International Transport Forum (ITF).
Open Book Publishers Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
"We are a Social Enterprise run by scholars who are committed to making high-quality research available to readers around the world. We publish monographs and textbooks in all areas, and offer the academic excellence of a traditional press[...]. All our books are available to read for free online"
Open Library Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Open Library has well over 20 million edition records, provide access to 1.7 million scanned versions of books, and link to external sources like WorldCat and Amazon. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Opposing Viewpoints in Context
This database presents viewpoint articles arguing both sides of controversial issues. The information presented also includes primary source articles, reference material, newspapers, statistics, and images.
Ovid Nursing Books
Search or browse helpful nursing and medical reference titles.
Ovid Nursing Journals Full Text All journals are peer reviewed
This is a small collection of full text nursing journals. They range in scope from general nursing to specializations such as emergency and dermatology nursing. All titles are also indexed in CINAHL.
Oxford Criminology Bibliographies
Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology is an online guide to the essential literature across the various subfields of criminology. Each article, written and reviewed by top scholars in the field, is rich with citations and annotations, expert recommendations, and narrative pathways to the most important works for virtually all areas of criminology. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Oxford Education Bibliographies
Oxford Education Bibliographies includes authoritative topic overviews and references for topics in education, including lists of foundational and influential works.
Oxford English Dictionary Online
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is widely regarded as the accepted authority on the English language. It is an unsurpassed guide to the meaning, history, and pronunciation of 600,000 words—past and present—from across the English-speaking world. As a historical dictionary, the OED is very different from those of current English, in which the focus is on present-day meanings. You’ll still find these in the OED, but you’ll also find the history of individual words and of the language, traced through 3 million quotations, from classic literature and specialist periodicals to films scripts and cookery books. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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Papers Invited
Papers Invited database consists of detailed, comprehensive information about calls for papers with deadlines regarding forthcoming conferences and special issues of scholarly journals.
Pivot
Pivot provides researchers the edge to bring together the right research opportunities, grant funding, and people quickly and easily. It provides global and local connections that strengthen research by exploring new avenues for funding and collaboration for faculty, staff researchers, and graduate students. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Political Science Complete Some journals are peer reviewed
Political Science Complete provides full text for over 400 publications, including international political, economic, and law journals, and indexes over 800 journals.
Political Science Complete & Business Source Complete Combined Search Some journals are peer reviewed
The Political Science Complete and Business Source Complete Combined Search contains both practical and scholarly information on policy, legal, economic, and professional topics. Use this search to locate scholarly journal articles, case studies, company profiles, reports, conference papers, financial data, and SWOT analyses. Particularly useful for topics related to business policy and the nonprofit sector. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Project Gutenberg Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Project Gutenberg is the oldest producer of free ebooks.
Project Muse All journals are peer reviewed
Project Muse is a collection of over 400 peer-reviewed humanities and social science journals, and covers a wide variety of topics. All of the articles in this database are available in full text.
ProQuest Central Some journals are peer reviewed
ProQuest Central includes a very large selection of scholarly and peer-reviewed publications appropriate for all Walden programs of study, as well as unique materials like newspapers, dissertations, and business information.
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global
The Dissertations and Theses database gives you full text access to over 3 million dissertations and theses from schools and universities around the world, including Walden dissertations. You can choose to search either all the dissertations and theses, or just those created at Walden. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
ProQuest Ebook Central
ProQuest Ebook Central offers e-books from the fields of education; psychology and social work; nursing and allied health; computers and IT.
ProQuest Health & Medical Collection Some journals are peer reviewed
Similar to ProQuest Nursing and Allied Health, with an overlapping journal set. This resource includes more health administration and consumer health titles.
ProQuest Nursing & Allied Health Source Some journals are peer reviewed
Includes abstracts and indexing that covers nursing, allied health, alternative and complementary medicine, and related topics. It also includes dissertations and can be a good source for grey literature.
ProQuest Science Journals Some journals are peer reviewed
With coverage dating back to 1986, ProQuest Science Journals features over 1,600 titles, with more than 1,270 available in full text. In full text format, researchers have access to all the charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, photos, and other graphical elements so vital to scientific and technical literature. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
PsycARTICLES Some journals are peer reviewed
This resource from the American Psychological Association (APA) is a definitive source of full text, peer-reviewed scholarly and scientific articles in psychology.
PsycBOOKS
PsycBOOKS contains over 30,000 PDF chapters from over 1,800 books.
PsycEXTRA
PsycEXTRA contains non-peer reviewed documents such as research and annual reports, fact sheets, brochures, newsletters, white papers, and grant information.
PsychiatryOnline
This resource features the DSM-5 in full text as well as a small collection of textbooks and journals.
Psychological Experiments Online This database offers video content. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Psychological Experiments Online contains multimedia sources documenting psychological experiments of the 20th and 21st centuries. Seventy-five hours of original audio and video recordings are (when possible) paired with hard to find materials such as notes from experiment participants, journal articles, books, field notes, and letters penned by lead psychologists, as well as videos of modern replications and modifications to the original experiments.
Psychology Databases Combined Search
Find articles in the field of psychology across multiple databases including, PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycCRITIQUES, PsycEXTRA, and PsycINFO.
Psychotherapy.net This database offers video content.
Psychotherapy.net offers inspiring and informative counseling and therapy videos. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. The collection is searchable by keyword, expert, therapeutic issue, and client population. This database offers helpful features such as the ability to make clips from longer videos, interactive running transcripts, and smart keyword search. These features allow users to easily explore, present, and share videos.
PsycINFO Some journals are peer reviewed
American Psychological Association's (APA) renowned resource for abstracts of scholarly journal articles, book chapters, books, and dissertations, is the largest resource devoted to peer-reviewed literature in behavioral science and mental health. It contains nearly 3 million citations and summaries dating as far back as the 1600s.
PsycTESTS
PsycTESTS contains access to unpublished (not commercially available) psychological tests, measures, scales, surveys, and other assessments. Each record contains reliability and validity, scope, implementation, and an overview when available. Most records also contain the full text of the instrument. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
PsycTESTS & Health and Psychosocial Instruments Combined Search Some journals are peer reviewed
PsycTESTS and Health and Psychosocial Instruments are collections of assessment instruments related to a variety of fields. This simultaneous search allows you to search both databases at once to locate assessment instruments.
PsycTHERAPY This database offers video content.
PsycTHERAPY is a database of streaming psychotherapy demonstrations featuring some of the most renowned therapists in North America working with participants on a host of therapeutic topics.
PTSDpubs Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
PTSDpubs database (formerly PILOTS) is a freely available, online database providing access to the worldwide literature on PTSD and other mental health consequences of exposure to traumatic events. It is produced by the National Center for PTSD. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Public Administration Abstracts
Public Administration Abstracts is a bibliographic database covering essential areas related to public administration. With over 54,000 records dating back to 1964, Public Administration Abstracts is an excellent resource for all administration topics, including theory, economics, politics, society, and social services.
PubMed Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
Includes the MEDLINE database, plus in process-citations, "Ahead of Print" items, NIH-funded research projects, books from the NCBI Bookshelf, and selected items from PubMed Central. Learn how to locate full text available through Walden University Library in PubMed. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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ReferenceUSA
Alternative Name(s) & Keywords: RefUSA
ReferenceUSA is the leading source for business and residential data in the United States. ReferenceUSA helps users of all kinds search for jobs, research U.S. businesses, create marketing and small business plans, locate specific people and more.
Regional Business News
This database contains business news articles and periodicals, including Crain's publications. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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SAGE Journals (formerly SAGE Premier) All journals are peer reviewed Popular
SAGE Journals includes current peer-reviewed journal articles in psychology, political science, management, education, and more.
SAGE Knowledge (formerly SAGE Encyclopedias) Popular
This database contains encyclopedias and handbooks in over 20 different subject areas.
SAGE Research Methods Online This database offers video content. All journals are peer reviewed
SAGE Research Methods Online allows researchers to explore their chosen methodology and research concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methodologies or identify a new methodology, conduct their research, and write up their findings. SAGE Research Methods contains content from more than 640 books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks, the entire Little Green Book, and Little Blue Book series, two Major Works collating a selection of journal articles, and newly commissioned videos. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
SAGE Stats
SAGE Stats provides hard to find, interactive statistical data in the area of social sciences. SAGE Stats includes data from the United States on topics such as healthcare, business/economy, crime, education, employment, religion, and government finances. Users can create visual comparisons of data and export data sets.
ScholarWorks Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. Some journals are peer reviewed
ScholarWorks makes publicly available the scholarly and creative output of the Walden University community. The searchable database includes Walden dissertations and Walden's open access research journals.
SciDev.Net Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
SciDev.Net is the world’s leading source of reliable and authoritative news, views and analysis on information about science and technology for global development.
ScienceDirect All journals are peer reviewed Popular
Coverage is particularly strong for the life and physical sciences, medicine, and technical fields, but also includes some social sciences and humanities. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
SDSU Test Finder Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
SDSU Test Finder from San Diego State University. Searchable database (compiled by San Diego State University) for locating known assessment instruments.
Social Mention Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Social Mention is a social media search and analysis platform that aggregates user generated content from across the universe into a single stream of information. It allows you to easily track and measure what people are saying about you, your company, a new product, or any topic across the web's social media landscape in real-time. Social Mention monitors 100+ social media properties directly including: Twitter, Facebook, FriendFeed, YouTube, Digg, Google etc.
Social Work Abstracts
Produced by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), this database provides indexing and abstracts for journals dealing with all aspects of the social work field, including theory and practice, areas of service and social issues and problems.
SocINDEX with Full Text Some journals are peer reviewed
SocINDEX is the world's most comprehensive and highest quality sociology research database. This database features materials on the subject of sociology, criminal justice, social work, gender studies and family studies. SocINDEX contains full text articles, books, monographs and conference papers. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Springer e-books
This collection is strong in computer science and engineering books, but also includes other subjects. Walden Library's access to the collection is 2011 copyright year only.
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Taylor and Francis Online All journals are peer reviewed
Taylor & Francis Group collaborates with researchers, scholarly societies, universities, and libraries worldwide to bring knowledge to life. Our journals program encompasses over 1,600 titles, and as one of the world's leading publishers of scholarly journals our content spans all areas of Humanities, Social Sciences, Science and Technology. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Teacher Reference Center Some journals are peer reviewed
Teacher Reference Center provides many subjects for teachers needs, including assessment, best practices, continuing education, current pedagogical research, curriculum development, elementary education, higher education, instructional media, language arts, literacy standards, school administration, science and mathematics, and teacher education.
Thoreau Multi-Database Search Some journals are peer reviewed
Thoreau is a tool that searches across many of the Library databases. It is not able to search every database, but it does search enough of our resources to be a useful tool for quick, simple searches. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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Ulrich's Periodicals Directory
The database has publisher and publication information for more than 300,000 journals of all types from around the world. Use the database to find out if a journal is peer reviewed by searching for the journal title.
UN Data Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Provides free data access to UN statistical databases through a single entry point. Users can search and download a variety of statistical resources of the UN system.
UNESCO Documents Database Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Collection of publications from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. UNESCO’s mission is to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and information.
UNICEF Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Offers statistics on a diverse range of subject areas pertaining to children across the world, such as child mortality, child health, early childhood development, and education.
United Nations Public Administration Network Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
The United Nations Public Administration Network contains a large e-library that contains a variety of information including surveys and policy information.
US Department of Health and Human Services Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Child welfare information gateway statistics. Links to reports, databases, and other sources of statistics and demographic data on topics, including child and family well-being in the United States, child abuse and neglect, children and youth in foster care, and domestic and international adoption. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
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Walden Library Books
Find books available in the Walden Library.
World Bank Open Knowledge Repository (The) Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
The World Bank is the largest single source of development knowledge. The World Bank Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) is The World Bank's official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
World Health Organization Open Access databases provide unrestricted access to and use of peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, books, dissertations, and more.
Provides current list of data on many health related topics on an international scale, including subtopics: alcohol, tobacco, substance use disorders, and general mental health. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

LVM Systems’ triage products provide proven protocols that ensure consistent and accurate results. Telephone triage is an effective process for directing consumers and patients to the appropriate level of care. Partnering with Dr. Barton Schmitt and Dr. David Thompson, LVM makes available the most tested and clinically proven protocols. The protocols are modifiable to meet the preferences of your medical advisors. Panels of physicians and nurses with experience in telephone triage rigorously review the Schmitt-Thompson clinical content. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

What sets Centaurus Triage apart is the “nursing support” enhancements – the result of listening to feedback from hundreds of triage nurses and developing features to make them more efficient and effective. If desired, LVM can host many of our products in the cloud on LVM’s Virtual Call Center (VCC). Centaurus provides the following call center solutions for telephone triage:

After Hours Nurse Triage
Used by nurses in Telephone Triage Call Centers, the After Hours set of protocols includes additional dispositions. For example, recommendations to go to the appropriate level of care when physician offices are closed. This protocol set also includes Care Advice targeted to the level of care (disposition) provided by the nurse. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Office Hours Nurse Triage
To address the needs of patients with daytime triage needs, LVM offers Office Hours triage protocols from Dr. Barton Schmitt and Dr. David Thompson. Drs. Schmitt and Thompson designed the Office-Hours protocols to manage daytime office or clinical setting calls.

As you review the CRRN Exam Handbook while preparing for the CRRN exam, you are encouraged to use a variety of resources. What is the study method that works best for you? Individual review? Study group? Class? What types of materials are most helpful? Textbooks? Audio or video programs? Outlines? Memory aids like flashcards? You may also want to review the prepared sample questions to get a sense of the question format. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Know What is Covered
There are four major domains in the CRRN Exam Content Outline:

1. Rehabilitation nursing models and theories (6%)
2. Functional health patterns (theories, physiology, assessment, standards of care, and interventions in individuals with injury, chronic illness, and disability across the lifespan) (58%)
3. The function of the rehabilitation team and community reintegration (13%)
4. Legislative, economic, ethical, and legal issues (23%).

The CRRN Exam Content Outline lists each domain with related tasks, knowledge, and skill statements. It is the best source of information for exam content.

The RNCB does not sponsor or endorse any review course or other preparation materials.

Use Resources Created for Your Success
ARN has created the very best CRRN exam prep tools to help you while on your path to certification. There are a variety of tools to choose from based on how you prefer to learn! Each of these tools can be purchased in the ARN Bookstore, and at a deep discount to ARN members. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Online CRRN Review: A Knowledge Check
The newest prep tool from ARN is in online Q&A format for you to use when you want and at your own pace. Featuring 16 modules, the ARN Online CRRN Review helps you assess your knowledge in each of the exam domains and tasks. You may want to use this program first to assess your exam readiness.

The Specialty Practice of Rehabilitation Nursing: A Core Curriculum, 7th ed.
Published by ARN, this comprehensive book is used by many nurses to prepare for the CRRN exam, and is used continuously throughout your career as a rehabilitation nurse. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

CRRN Flashcards
Portable and easy to use, the CRRN flashcards help you test your knowledge of individual rehabilitation nursing concepts.

CRRN Review Bundle
Our two most popular study tools have been combined to offer this bundle—The Specialty Practice of Rehabilitation Nursing: a Core Curriculum,7th ed. with the CRRN Flashcards.

Online PRN Course
This comprehensive, online course takes you on a deep dive into rehabilitation nursing interventions, chronic and disabling conditions seen in rehab, patient education, and more! Earn 22 CH once you have completed the course, post-tests, and evaluations. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Online CRRN Practice Test
Practice questions are presented in the same format as the CRRN exam.

CRRN Tips & Tricks Webinar
Hosted live in August 2018, this presentation helps you prepare for the exam by building familiarity with the exam content outline and reviewing topics like exam question types, online testing techniques, exam registration procedures, and testing center guidelines. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Additional Resources
Additional resources to help you prepare for the exam, include:

Carpenito-Moyet, L. (2016). Nursing diagnosis: Application to clinical practice (16th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Willkes.

Hickey, J. (2013). Clinical practice of neurological and neurosurgical nursing (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Jarvis, C. (2015). Physical examination and health assessment (7th ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier Health Sciences.

Karch, A. (2017). 2018 Lippincott pocket drug guide for nurses. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkes.

Mauk, K. (2017). Gerontological nursing: competencies for care. (4th ed.). Boston: Jones & Bartlett.

Mauk, K. (2012). Rehabilitation nursing: a contemporary approach to practice. Boston: Jones & Bartlett.

McCance, K., Huether, S. (2014). Pathophysiology: the biologic basis for disease in adults and children (7th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Potter, P., Perry, A., (2016). Fundamentals of nursing (9th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Powell, S., Tahan, H. (2016). CMSA core curriculum for case management (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkes.

Thibodeau, G. (2012). Anthony's textbook of anatomy & physiology (20th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book.

The digital revolution has created a new world for healthcare marketing that requires hyper-targeted campaigns. Healthcare professionals are absorbing information at unprecedented rates. With programmatic technology, Adfire Health can connect to them in real-time as they traverse the internet on their desktops, tablets and mobile devices. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Think of the managers you have reported to thus far in your career. Now consider the people you have worked with or know of that you would consider leaders. Based on these experiences, what would you surmise about the responsibilities of managers and leaders and about the distinctions between these two categories in health care settings? NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This week’s Learning Resources classify management and leadership (which are often confused in everyday discussion) and explain their significance for health care organizations. As you advance professionally, it is critical to understand the distinctions between management and leadership and how you can apply this knowledge for increasing effectiveness in your workplace. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

To prepare:

Review the information in the Learning Resources.
Conduct additional research on your own and select at least two current, credible sources that contribute to your understanding of management and leadership. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Reflect on how the roles of management and leadership differ in supporting the organization to set and achieve goals.
Drawing upon specific examples from a current or previous practice setting, bring to mind someone who seemed to be a leader but not a manager and someone who seemed to be a manager but not a leader (generally speaking, or within a specific circumstance). Be prepared to support your assessment with specific behavioral descriptions found in the literature. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

On the Week 8 Discussion Board, 1 page, APA format

an analysis of how management and leadership roles differ in terms of supporting an organization to set and achieve goals.
In addition, post descriptions of an individual who demonstrates leadership behaviors but not management behaviors and an individual who demonstrates management behaviors but not leadership behaviors.
Provide your rationale, identifying specific characteristics of effective managers and leaders. (Note:Do not identify these individuals by name, position, or location.) NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course readings

Theory and application(8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
o Review Chapters 2 and 3

Note: Many of the articles in this week’s Required Readings are foundational in the leadership and management literature. The concepts presented in these early articles still apply to today’s workplace. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Jennings, B. M., Scalzi, C. C., Rodgers, J. D., & Keane, A. (2007). Differentiating nursing leadership and management competencies. Nursing Outlook, 55(4), 169–175.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

In this foundational article, Jennings explores the similarities and differences between leadership and management competencies. The research implies that there is a growing ambiguity between the competencies required in nursing that must be addressed. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Keys, Y. (2014). Looking ahead to our next generation of nurse leaders: Generation X Nurse Managers. Journal of nursing management, 22(1), 97-105.doiI: 10.1111/jonm.12198
Abstract excerpt: The aim of this study identifies elements of professional success, and personal and professional fulfilment as defined by Generation X Nurse Managers. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Leach, L. S., & McFarland, P. (2014). Assessing the Professional Development Needs of Experienced Nurse Executive Leaders. Journal of Nursing Administration, 44(1), 51-62. doi: 10.1097/NNA.0000000000000021
Abstract excerpt: The objective of this study was to identify the professional development topics that senior nurse leaders believe are important to their advancement and success. Visionary leadership, leading complexity, and effective teams were the highest ranked leadership topics. Leading change, advancing health: The future of nursing, healthy work environments, and healthcare reform were also highly ranked topics. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Marker, D. (2010). Leadership or management? Management Quarterly, 51(2), 31–34.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

This article defines what leadership and management are and explains differences between the concepts. According to Marker, managers are associated with position and power, while leadership is associated with position, guidance, and communication.

Ross, E. J., Fitzpatrick, J. J., Click, E. R., Krouse, H. J., & Clavelle, J. T. (2014). Transformational leadership practices of nurse leaders in professional nursing associations. Journal of Nursing Administration, 44(4), 201-206.doi: 10.1097/NNA.0000000000000044
Abstract excerpt: To build transformational frontline nurse leaders, organizations should balance formal leadership training programs with advanced degree attainment to encourage leaders to envision and challenge the future.

Stoddart, K., Bugge, C., Shepherd, A., & Farquharson, B. (2014). The new clinical leadership role of senior charge nurses: a mixed methods study of their views and experience. Journal of Nursing Management, 22(1), 49-59.DOI: 10.1111/jonm.12008
Abstract excerpt: The aim of this study was to investigate the experience and views of senior charge nurses in relation to the implementation of a national clinical leadership policy.

Yi, H. H., & Yi, Y. J. (2014). Influence of Leader-Member exchange quality of head nurses and clinical nurses on organizational commitment and job satisfaction in clinical nurses. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing Administration, 20(2), 195-205.
Abstract excerpt: The purpose was to identify the influence the quality of head and clinical nurses’ LMX (Leader-Member Exchange) on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Leadership style of nurse managers plays a significant role in nurses' job satisfaction. However, there is limited literature in areas related to nurses' manager leadership style. The objective of this research was thus to investigate the relationship between leadership style of nurse managers and nurses' job satisfaction in Jimma University Specialized Hospital.

Methods
The study was conducted at Jimma University Specialized Hospital from January to June 2012 and used a non-experimental correlation design. All full time, non-supervisory nurses with an experience of more than one year in nursing profession were participated in the study. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire were used to collect data. Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS version16.0 statistical software. The results were analyzed through descriptive statistics followed by the application of inferential statistics on the variables. Significance level was considered when p<0.05.

Results
A total of 175 copies of the questionnaires were returned out of 186 copies distributed to respondents. The result indicated that nurses can prefer transformational leadership style over transactional leadership style and had moderate-level intrinsic (M=2.72, SD=0.71) but low level of extrinsic job satisfaction (M=1.83, SD=0.68). Furthermore, from transactional leadership, only contingent reward was found to be statically significant and correlated with extrinsic (B=0.45, p<0.01) and intrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.32, p<0.05) while all five dimension of transformational leadership style were statistically significant and correlated with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.

Conclusion
Nurses tended to be more satisfied with the transformational leadership than transactional leadership style. Therefore, nurses' managers should use transformational leadership style in order to increase nurses' job satisfaction.

Keywords: Leadership, Nurses, Job satisfaction, Jimma University Specialized Hospital
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Introduction
Leadership is the ability to influence and pursue the follower by guiding, motivating and directing to achieve organizational effectiveness (1). Many health management literatures emphasize that effective leadership is highly related to nurse staff work satisfaction(2) and that satisfied nurses are more likely to stay not only in the profession but also in the health care organization which they are satisfied with (3).

There are various styles of leadership that nurse managers have demonstrated to lead staff nurses in hospital (4), but before the introduction of transformational leadership style, the transactional leadership style was perceived by most nurses' managers as the most effective style in health care organizations(4).

Since the early 1990s, transformational leadership style has been preferred over transactional leadership style (5) because health care environment demands leaders who inspire others with the vision of what can be accomplished (6). There is a limited literature in areas related to Nurse managers' leadership styles. The objective of this study was thus to investigate the relationship between leadership styles of nurse managers and nurses' job satisfaction at Jimma University Specialized Hospital. The theoretical framework guiding this study was the Transformational Leadership Theory first developed by Burns in 1978(5) and later expanded by Bass (5) to provide a useful model for effective nursing leadership in modern health care settings (Figure 1).

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Figure 1
Bass' theoretical framework of transformational and transactional leadership styles in health care organization

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Materials and Methods
Study Area and Study Design: This study was conducted at Jimma University Specialized Hospital (JUSH) from January to June 2012. Jimma University Specialized Hospital is located in Jimma Town, 352 km southwest of Addis Ababa. This hospital is the only teaching and referral hospital in the southwestern part of the country, and provides specialized clinical services to about 12 million inhabitants (7).

The study adopted a quantitative research approach using a non-experimental correlational design. All nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital and fulfilled the four criteria, i.e. more than one years working experience in nursing profession, graduation with diploma, BSc, or MSc degree in nursing, non-supervisory management position, and working under the direct supervision of a head nurse were included in the study. Based on the data obtained from the Hospital's Human Resource Office, there were 186 nurses who fulfilled these four criteria during the study time. This study used census instead of sample since the population size was small (8).

Data Collection: Data were collected by using two standardized questionnaires. The purpose and significance of the study were explained to all participants. Furthermore, all the participants were informed that participation was completely voluntary. Then data collectors distributed copies of the questionnaires to volunteers and asked them to seal the completed questionnaire in the enclosed envelop and return to data collectors within 7 days.

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form was used to measure the dependent variable of job satisfaction of staff nurses. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by Weiss (9) measures two dimensions of job satisfaction namely: internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) job satisfaction. The questionnaire has 18 items that measure the intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction using a five-point Likert Scale. The Likert Scale consists of rating options ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4= satisfied, 5= very satisfied).

In the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Test-retest reliabilities are between 0.70 and 0.80 (10), with an alpha coefficient of 0.96 and an acceptable mean inter-item correlation of 0.22 (11). The second instrument used for data collection was the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). This questionnaire was used to distinguish between perceived leadership styles of transformational and transactional dimentions among nurse managers in the hospital. The transformational dimensions measured in this study included: (a) Idealized Influence (attributed), (b) Idealized Influence (behavior), (c) Inspirational Motivation, (d) Intellectual Stimulation, and; (e)Individual Consideration. The Transactional dimensions measured in this study included (a) Contingent Reward, (b) Management-by-Exception (passive), (c) Management-by-Exception (active), and; Laissez-Faire. The MLQ consists of 45 items using a Likert Scale ranging from 0 to 4 (0 = not at all, 1 = once in a while, 2 = sometimes, 3 = fairly often, and 4 = frequently, if not always). It has an acceptable Cronbach's coefficient alpha's ranged from .74 to .94 (12).

Data were collected by three diploma holder nurses after they were provided a thorough training on data collection procedure. A strict supervision was made by the researchers during the data collection. Face validity of the instrument was ensured by having the questionnaires reviewed on clarity in wording, relevance of the items, clarity of instruction, absence of biased words and phrases, use of standard English and formatting (13). The questionnaires were reviewed by one PhD holder in Public Administration and one PhD candidate in Public Health. To measure the reliability, the questionnaires were pre-tested on 18 nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospitals. Based on the pre-test result and the reviewers' comments, appropriate modifications were made on the questionnaires before the actual data collection.

Data Analysis: After data were collected, the questionnaires were checked for the completeness and consistency of reponss during data clearing, and on this basis, incomplete questionnaires were excluded. Then data analysis was made using SPSS for window version 16. The result of the study was analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, percentage, means and standard deviation; and inferential statistics such as Principal Component Analysis, Person Product-Moment Coefficient and Multiple Regression.

Prior to Principle Component Analysis, full-scale internal consistency (cronbach's α coefficient) and item-total correlation was calculated. The correlation matrix for the nine items was computed first, and the the Kaisermeyer Olklin value was found to be 0.84, exceeding the recommended value of 0.70 (16). Barlett's Test of Sphericity(17) reached statistical significant level (p<0.05). Scree plot criteria were used to determine the number of factors to be extracted. Based on Nunally and Bernstein's (18) recommendation, loadings higher than 0.4 were retained in factors. Oblique oblimin rotation was performed in order to help interpretation.

Analysis of descriptive statistics and Pearson's correlation analysis were conducted to analyze the constructs and the usefulness of the data as recommended by Yaacob (19). Finally, multiple regression analysis was used to assess the magnitude of each independent variable and to vary the mediating variable in the relationship between more than one independent variables and one dependent variable (20). The statistical significant difference targeted was 0.05 alpha level which is typical in most researches (21). The following operational definitions were used in the study:

Job satisfaction: An evaluative judgment about the degree of pleasure an employee derives from his/her job that consists of both affective and cognitive components (14). Registered staff nurses' job satisfaction is a dependent variable with components of: A) the intrinsic component of job satisfaction which is dependent on personal perception and internal feeling and includes factors such as recognition, advancement, and responsibility and B) the extrinsic components which are external job related variables that would include salary, supervision, and working conditions (15).

Transformational Leadership: The process in which leaders and subordinates raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality (5). Transformational leadership, an independent variable, includes A) attributed idealized influence that describes behaviors that encourage staff to think highly of their managers, B) behavioral idealized influence which refers to actions managers take to demonstrate values, beliefs, and sense of organizational mission, C) inspirational motivation that describes managers who are optimistic about the organization's vision of the future, D) intellectual stimulation in which the leader articulates new ideas that prompt followers to rethink conventional practice and thinking and E) individual consideration that is demonstrated by mentoring and recognizing the unique needs and abilities of staff members (2).

Transactional Leadership: Is mostly characterized by a desire to preserve the organization's existing culture, policies, and procedures (5). Transactional leadership, an independent variable, includes A) contingent rewards in which the leader provides rewards that are either tangible like finical rewards or intangible rewards like verbal form of recognition based on subordinates performance, B) active management by exception that represents managerial behaviors that focus on finding faults in the work of subordinates, C) passive management by exception which involves responding or becoming involved only when a problem occurs, and D) laissez-faire behaviors which demonstrate a lack of involvement in which mangers purposely fail to become involved in important decisions (2).

Ethical clearance was obtained from Ethical Review Committee of Jimma University, College of Business and Economics and a formal letter was written to the hospital. Verbal consent was obtained from every one of the participants before the data collection. Additionally, names of participants were not used in the study and confidentially of the respondents' information was maintained.

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Results
In this study, out of a total of 186 nurses who were working at Jimma Specialized Hospital and fulfilled the selection criteria were provided the standard questionnaires and they filled out and returned 175 copies of the questionnaires were. Response rate was 94%, which was considered as very good (22). Six individuals were unable to communicate during the data collection while five respondents returned incomplete copies of the questionnaires, which accounts for 11(6%) of the target population. The demographic data were analyzed using descriptive statistic (N=175). The age range of the subjects was 20–60, with the highest percentage (51% falling between ages of 20 and 30 years of age. The literature indicated that nurses work force in health sectors are mostly females (23); likewise, at Jimma University Specialized Hospital, (55%) of the nurses were females and the remaining (45%) were males. Seventy-nine percent of the respondents had diploma in nursing while the rest 21% had BSc degree in the same field of study. Among these respondents, 75% had 1–10 years of work experience (Table 1).

Table 1
Demographic characteristics of respondents (N=175)

Variables Frequency Percentage
Age 18–20 5 5
20–30 90 51
30–40 25 14
40–50 45 26
50–60 10 6
Gender Male 79 45
Female 96 55
Educational Qualification Diploma 139 79
BSc Degree 36 21
Work Experience 1–5 86 49
5–10 36 21
10–15 26 15
15–20 6 3
20–25 11 6
>25 10 6
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The nine items of the Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) were subjected to a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Principal Component Analysis was performed in order to ascertain whether the nurses were able to distinguish transformational and transactional leadership styles.

Table 2 shows that the cronbach's α coefficient was 0.82, indicating strong internal consistency and appropriate item homogeneity (11,18). Item total correlation results also revealed acceptable coefficients for all variables (P<0.05), ranging from 0.66 to 0.81(19). The examination of the eigenvalue > 1 criteria allowed up to 3 components, but the scree plot identified 2 components to be extracted. For the non-rotated elucidation, two components accounted for 77% of the total variance. After Oblimin rotation, all items showed prominent standardized regression coefficients for one of the two retained Components. Table 2 also shows that all transformational leadership characteristic were loading on component one with a loading range of 0.85–0.94. The unexpected finding was that one of the transactional characteristic, contingent rewards, was loaded to the transformational component with loading of 0.85. All the other transitional leadership characteristics were loaded to transactional components with loading range of 0.42–0.91. This finding indicates that nurses who participated in this study considered contingent reward as a transformational leadership characteristic.

Table 2
Item-total correlation, internal consistency, and component pattern matrix after direct Oblimin rotation from principal component analysis of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (N=175).

Items Component 1 Component 2 h2 Item-total
correlation
Idealized influence( Behavior) 0.94 .84 0.81
Idealized Influence ( attribute) 0.91 .82 0.75
Individual Consideration 0.91 .82 0.77
Inspirational Motivation 0.87 .76 0.71
Intellectual Stimulation 0.86 .75 0.72
Contingent reward 0.85 .72 0.67
Management by exception
(active) 0.91 .69 0.68
Management by exception(passive) 0.42 .70 0.67
Laissez-fair 0.42 .69 0.66
% Percent of Variance Explained* 64% 13% 77%
Correlation between factors
Component 1 1
Component 2 0.35 1
Cronbach alpha of Leadership
Dimensions 0.82
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h2= final communality estimate

*Non-rotated solution
Descriptive statistics of the leadership and job satisfaction variables are shown in Table 3. The means range from 1.71 to 2.91. The mean result indicated that nurses were more satisfied with transformational leadership style with inspirational motivation dimension (M=2.91, SD=0.81). The mean score of job satisfaction indicated that nurses demonstrated moderate-level intrinsic satisfaction (M=2.72, SD=0.71) but low level of extrinsic satisfaction (M=1.83, SD=0.68).

Table 3
Descriptive statistics for dimensions of transformational leadership, transactional leadership and job satisfaction.

Dimensions Mean Standard
Deviation
Idealized influence(Behaviour) 2.57 0.71
Idealized influence (Attribute) 2.41 0.69
Inspirational Motive 2.91 0.81
Intellectual stimulation 2.42 0.76
Individual Consideration 2.22 0.77
Contingent reward 1.81 0.68
Management by Objective (Active) 1.71 0.71
Management by Objective ( Passive) 1.22 0.72
Laissez fair 1.25 0.75
Intrinsic satisfaction 2.72 0.71
Extrinsic satisfaction 1.83 0.68
Table 4 shows that there is a statically significant positive correlation between intrinsic job satisfaction and transformational leadership dimensions: Idealised Influence (Behaviour) (r=0.31,p<0.01), Idealised Influence(attribute) (r=0.45,p<0.01), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.51,p<0.01), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.45,p<0.01), Individual Consideration (r=0.38,p<0.01). Among the five dimensions of transformational leadership style, inspirational motivation dimension has strong relationship ith wintrinsic job satisfaction. On other hand, there is a statistically significant but weak correlation between extrinsic job satisfaction and dimensions of transformational leaderships: Idealised Influence (Behaviour) (r=0.19,p<0.01), Idealised Influence( attribute) (r=0.27,p<0.01), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.21,p<0.01), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.32,p<0.01) and Individual Consideration (r=0.25,p<0.01). In transactional leadership style, only contingent reward statically significant correlated with extrinsic (r=0.45, p<0.01) and intrinsically job satisfaction (r=0.32, p<0.05). The table also indicates that the cronbach alpha of the intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions are 0.90 and 0.94 respectively, greater than the recommended standard >0.7 (11).

Table 4
Inter-correlations among dimensions of transactional and transformational leadership with nurses' job satisfaction (N=175).

Dimensions Contingent
Reward Management by
exception
(Passive) Management by
exception
(Active) Laissez Fair Idealized
Influence
(Behaviour) Idealized
Influence
(attribute) Inspirational
Motivation Intellectual
Stimulation Individual
Consideration Cronbach alpha
Intrinsic job
satisfaction 0.32* 0.21 0.18 0.23 0.31** 0.45** 0.51** 0.45** 0.38** 0.90
Extrinsic job
satisfaction 0.45** 0.04 0.19 0.37 0.19** 0.27** 0.21** 0.32** 0.25** 0.94
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**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed),
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Multiple regression analysis was performed to test the relationship between the dimension of leadership style and job satisfaction dimension. As depicted in Table 5, there was a direct effect of the predictors that significantly explained 69% of the variability in job satisfaction. The result indicated that contingent reward was positively related to both intrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.15, p<0.01) and extrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.39, p<0.01). Management by exception (active) had statistically significant but weak relationship with intrinsic (B=0.06, p<0.05) and extrinsic (B=0.08, p<0.05) job satisfactions, while management by exception (passive) had significant but negative relationship with intrinsic (B= −0.05, p<0.05) job satisfaction. On the other hand, it had significant but weak relationship with extrinsic (B=0.07, p<0.05) job satisfaction. Laissez-faire style had statistically significant but negative relationship with both intrinsic (B=−0.19, p<0.05) and extrinsic (B=−0.15, p<0.05) job satisfactions. All the five dimensions of transformational leadership were found to be positively related with intrinsic: Idealized Influence(Behaviour) (B=0.32,p<0.01), Idealized Influence(Attribute) (B=0.29,p<0.01), Inspirational Motive (B=0.49,p<0.01), Intellectual Motive( B=0.49, p<0.01), Inspirational Stimulation (B=0.31,p<0.01), and Individual Consideration (B=0.35,p<0.01) as well as extrinsic: Idealized Influence (Behaviour) (B=0.19,p<0.05), Idealized Influence (attribute) (B=0.21,p<0.05), Inspirational Motivation(B=0.19,p<0.05), Intellectual Stimulation (B=0.42, p<0.05) and Individual Consideration (B=0.17,p<0.05) job satisfactions.

Table 5
Regression analysis of transactional and transformational leadership and job satisfaction (N=175).

Dimensions Intrinsic Job
Satisfaction Extrinsic Job
satisfaction
Contingent reward 0.15** 0.39**
Management by Objective (Active) 0.06* 0.08*
Management by Objective ( Passive) −0.05* 0.07*
Laissez-fair −0.19* −0.15*
Idealized influence(Behaviour) 0.32** 0.19*
Idealized influence (Attribute) 0.29** 0.21*
Inspirational Motive 0.35** 0.22**
Intellectual stimulation 0.49** 0.42*
Individual Consideration 0.35** 0.17*
R2 0.69
AdjR2 0.67
R2 Change 0.66
F Value 42.55**
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed),
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
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Discussion
The result indicated that nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital during the study can distinguish between transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style. Furthermore, staff nurses preferred transformational leadership style rather than transactional leadership style. The finding is consistent with previous researches done in USA by Jordan and those conducted at China Hospitals (24, 25, 6, 26). The other important finding appeared in the result of this study was that nurses considered Contingent Reward as a transformational leadership characteristic feature. Previous research results showed that nurses viewed contingent reward as a feature of transformational leadership style (5, 10). According to Bass and Avolio (12), contingent reward involves leaders who give subordinates what they want in exchange for their support and make clear what the latter can receive if performance meets prescribed standards. Bass's study conducted in 1985 (27) on industrial managers indicated that contingent reward is one of the characteristics of transactional leadership style while nurses considered it as one of the charactertics of transformational leadership style. Medley and Larochelle (6) explained major difference between nurse and industrial leaders involved in contingent reward emphasizing that in nursing it is unusual for an individual to receive special recognition or to be rewarded tangibly for outstanding performance.

The mean scores of transformational and transactional leadership styles indicated that nurses appeared to be more satisfied with transformational leadership style especially with inspirational motivation and idealized behavior influence. Leaders adopting inspirational motivation behavior have an ability to strengthen their followers' responses and explain important ideas in simple ways (28). Idealized Influence (behavior) also helps the leader to instill pride and faith in the follower by overcoming obstacles and confidently expressing dissatisfaction with the status quo (24,29,30). The mean score of nurses' satisfaction also indicated that nurses had low level of extrinsic satisfaction. Findings of previous studies revealed that nurses working in public hospitals in Sub-Saharan African countries did not have extrinsic job satisfaction due to low remuneration, lack of educational opportunity and poor working conditions (31, 32). On the other hand, the finding revealed that nurses had moderate level of intrinsic job satisfaction. Previous researches indicated that nurses are intrinsically satisfied due taking interest in helping others and because of professional gratification (32, 33, 34).

The result of this research also revealed that all dimensions of transformational leadership were more positively correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction than extrinsic job satisfaction. This finding is consistent with the finding of a study done in a Jordanian private hospital (24). Transformational leadership promotes employees' empowerment in implementing organizational functions (24). Employees' empowerment has played a significant role on employee self-efficiency which in turn promotes employees' intrinsic satisfaction. (29).

Multiple regression analysis results revealed that except contingent reward, other dimensions of transactional leadership styles had either weak or negative relationship with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Findings of previous studies indicated that management by exception (passive) and laissez-fair styles are the least effective forms of leader behavior (35) and are likely to have negative relation with job satisfaction (36). The reason why both management by exception (passive) and laissez-faire dimensions have negative relation with job satisfaction is that passive management by exception puts the subordinate under pressure in order to make him/her follow the desired standards, but it does not support individual resources (37) while Laissez-faire leaders do not attempted to make agreements with employees, to motivate them, to set standards or to give feedback (38).

On the other hand, all dimensions of transformational leadership style were significantly and positively correlated with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Comparison of beta coefficients of transformational leadership dimensions indicated that intellectual stimulation had the strongest correlation with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Previous research findings also showed that there is a statically significant positive relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction (24, 39).

The result of this study indicated that nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital preferred managers who are transformational leaders. This implies that transformational leadership style promotes job satisfaction of nurses leading to improved performance and reducing the turnover of nurses. McClosky and McCain (40) found out that nurses' job performance increased proportionally with increased job satisfaction. Therefore, nurses managers should consider the following important points:

The mission and vision of the hospital should be clear to each nurse in order to enable him/her transform the mission and vision into ward objectives;

Nurses should understand the jointly set goals and the nurse manager should foster innovative thinking to consider the existing working standard in a new way so as to improve individual and team productivity;

Nurse managers should develop more trust and confidence in their nurses and it is necessary that the former strive to empower the latter.

Nurse managers should be good role models for their nurses and avoid applying both management by exception (active and passive), and laissez-faire components because these have either little or adverse contribution to nurses' job satisfaction.

Furthermore, hospital administrators should facilitate training programs for nurse managers on leadership styles and their effects on job satisfaction in order to enable them to understand the components of effective nursing leadership style. Finally, further investigation on the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles and nurses' job satisfaction in private and public hospitals in Ethiopia in order to critically examine the effects of these two leadership styles on nurses' job satisfaction is recommended.

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Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the following people: Sr. Rahel Aamre, Costantinos Berhe (PhD), all nurses who participated in this research, and Research, Graduate studies and Community Based Education Office of Jimma University.

Leaders are in best position to facilitate the changes because they are considered as change agents. Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes changes in individuals and social systems. The purpose of this study was to determine leadership styles of nurse managers and their outcomes in government hospitals in Hail City (Saudi Arabia). The study respondents were head nurses and nurses working in 4 government hospitals. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used to measure nurse manager leadership styles as perceived by nurses and the nurse managers themselves. There were no significant differences between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers themselves and the perception of the nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership styles (P = 0.719). When determining whether there was a significant association between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and the outcomes of that leadership, the results yielded a significant (moderate) relationship between a transformational leadership style and the outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (P = 0.000), effectiveness (P = 0.000), and satisfaction (P = 0.000).

Keywords: leadership, nursing, Saudi Arabia, Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, transformational leadership style

Copyright © 2017 Science and Education Publishing. All Rights Reserved.
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Albagawi, B. , Laput, V. , Pacis, C. , & AlMahmoud, T. (2017). Nurses’ Perceptions of Nurse Manager Leadership Styles. American Journal of Nursing Research, 5(1), 22-31.
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1. Introduction
Nursing is a demanding job. The role of nurses is one that has been regarded as stressful because it requires physical labor, engenders strong emotions to witnessing human suffering, and long hours of standing during work. It also involves problems in staffing and in dealing with interpersonal and cultural diversity, and stress caused by the increasing demands for nurses to adapt to the ever-growing advances in technology being utilized in health care, continuing rises in health care costs, and turbulence within the work environment [1].

Nurse leaders of today face challenges that focus not any more on the process of how care is delivered, but on the outcomes of care. Emphasis is on the standard provision of care that must be proven with proper documentation. There is also the focus on reporting of patient satisfaction, thus make the nurse leaders realize the weights of explicit accountability for managing and leading the staff responsible for providing the quality patient care [2].

Several authors have emphasized the importance of effective leadership in health care. Nursing leadership is pivotal because nurses represent the largest discipline in health care [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The present key challenge face by health care services organizations worldwide is to nurture an organizational culture that ensures the delivery of continuously improving high quality, safe, and compassionate health care. Leadership is the most influential factor in shaping organizational culture, and in ensuring that the necessary leadership behaviors, strategies, and qualities are developed. There is a compelling and urgent need for clinical governance which is considered a robust framework that acknowledges the importance of adopting a culture of shared accountability for sustaining and improving the quality of services and outcomes for both patients and staff [8].

Health care leadership must go beyond boundaries within and across any health care organization. Thus, working together as an organizational entity, leaders must manifest influencing, and empowering behaviors through effective communications in order to share and learn from and with each other in practice [9].

In Saudi Arabia, where the Saudization movement began in 2011, the nursing service is still facing an ongoing shortage of Saudi-born nurses, and especially Saudi-born nurse managers. The rapid turnover of nurses and nurse managers in our country has brought about challenges in the health care system, risking a crisis such as the one that occurred during the Gulf war in 1990 [10, 11].

Nurse leaders must help their staff navigate complex health care reform laws and keep patients satisfied with their care, while also keeping costs as low as possible and predicting the future needs of this rapidly changing industry. Numerous studies have shown that positively proactive leaders who lead by example are perceived as being more effective leaders, and staffs perform for them better [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Leadership models abound, and many have been adapted to health care settings [18, 19, 20, 21]. A competent and strong leadership is essential for the achievement of organizational goals. Thus, given the current nursing shortage in Saudi Arabia, it is important to reexamine the leadership styles of our nurse managers and the perceptions of their subordinates to determine which leadership styles could produce the most effective outcomes.

Leadership is defined as a process whereby an individual influences a group of other individuals to achieve a common goal. Because leaders and followers are both part of this process, it is important to address those issues that confront followers as also being issues that confront leaders. Leaders and followers should be understood in relation to each other [22].

Innovative leadership models and theories are salient in addressing the core competencies of contemporary nursing management, which are congruous with the needs of professional nursing practice and a consumer-responsive society [23]. Empirical research and theoretical literature offer many leadership styles. However, the merits of transformational leadership are gathering momentum because this style challenges the autocratic unilateral leadership models of former years. As with each leadership style, transformational leadership necessitates numerous attributes and conditions to effect its qualities successfully.

In a study of nursing leadership in Saudi Arabia, it has been found that leadership is more effective with a transformational approach. Researchers have found hospital leadership to be an influential factor in job satisfaction by their subordinates [24, 25]. Research suggests that when hospital leadership encourages subordinate empowerment there is a direct link to increased subordinate job satisfaction and motivation [26]. Evidence has shown that empowered nurses shift their self-perceived role from being a subordinate to that of a collaborator. This encourages consensus building, improves job ownership, and improves trust and the follower’s motivation, sense of responsibility and organizational commitment [27, 28].

Reference [29] Bass and Avolio’s (1994) theory of transformational leadership served as the theoretical framework for this research study. Their theory has been widely used to determine the most effective leadership styles. They concluded that transformational leaders have the greatest positive effect on followers, compared with transactional or passive/avoidant leaders. First developed by Burns for political leaders, Bass and Avolio adapted the transformational theory for business organizations and created the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X to quantify leadership styles. Using the MLQ Form 5X, Bass and Avolio defined leaders as transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant. However, they stated that the most effective leaders were not truly transformational but also exhibited transactional qualities where necessary. Burns (1978) introduced this concept more completely in his book Leadership. Burns was highly inspired by Maslow’s Theory of Human Needs [30]. In 1985, Bass, a disciple of Burns, further developed the concept of transformational leadership by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership; Bass also used the term "transformational" instead of "transforming." Bass added to the initial concepts of Burns (1978) to help explain how transformational leadership could be measured, as well as how it impacts follower motivation and performance. Specifically, he suggested that transformational leaders should try to transform their followers by raising their awareness regarding task outcomes, and by encouraging them to transcend their own self-interest for the interest of the organization, as well as activating their higher order needs. By grouping certain leadership traits, Bass identified three basic types of leadership style: transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire (or inactive). The transactional type specifies tasks, monitors performance, and seeks to achieve the desired outcome by providing a reward system. Transformational leadership aims to motivate employees by inspiring them and providing them with individual attention, while also stimulating their intellectual needs. The third type, laissez-faire leadership, involves remaining aloof from the responsibilities of leadership, instead leading from a distance [29].

2. Methods
The purpose of this study was to determine the leadership styles of the nurse managers and their outcomes in four government-based hospitals in Hail City.

Specific research questions to be addressed were as follows.

1. Define the profiles of nurse managers and staff nurses in terms of:

a. Age

b. Gender

c. Nationality

d. Educational attainment

e. Hospital location

f. Years of experience

g. Trainings attended

h. Salary

2. Define the leadership styles of nurse managers as perceived by:

a. Staff nurses

b. Nurse managers themselves

3. Is there a significant difference in the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers when they are grouped according to their profile?

4. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership style when they are grouped according to their profile?

5. Is there a significant difference in the perceptions of leadership styles of the nurse managers between the staff nurses and the nurse managers themselves?

6. What are the outcomes of the nurse managers’ leadership styles as perceived by the subordinates (staff nurses) in terms of:

a. Extra effort

b. Effectiveness

c. Satisfaction

7. Is there a significant relationship between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and the outcomes of their leadership?

2.1.Ethical Considerations
Before the study, approval was obtained from an Ethics Committee in the University of Hail (EC#173), official permission was obtained from the Department of Health Affairs in Hail region, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Moreover, participants who completed the questionnaire survey also filled out an informed consent form agreeing to participate in the study. Study participants were briefed on the study purpose and process, as well as their right to withdraw participation at any time without any adverse effect on their employment status. In this research project, we conform to the provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki in 1995 (as revised in Brazil 2013) [31].

3. Results
3.1. Data Analysis
After data were collected, the questionnaires were checked for the completeness and consistency of responses. Analysis was performed using IBM Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Statistics 20 software. The results were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency distributions and percentages to determine the demographic profile of the respondents and inferential statistics such as Student’s t test, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Pearson product–moment correlation to establish if there is difference or relationship among and between variables.

1. Result shows that most of the nurse managers and staff nurses are aged between 20 – 30 years of age who were females that are Saudi Nationals. A lot finished their Bachelor’s degree only were a bulk of the nurse managers came from Maternity Hospital and staff nurses from King Khalid Hospital. Majority of the respondents served the hospital less than 10 years and most don’t attend trainings.

2. The identified leadership styles of nurse managers fairly often displayed transformational leadership (3.03) sometimes of transactional leadership (2.22) and laissez-faire once in a while with (1.05). On the other hand, staff nurses believed that they are managed by their superiors utilizing transformational leadership style (2.85) which is ranked first and seconded by transactional leadership (2.30). Further, results also reveal that Laissez-faire leadership is employed by their superiors only once in a while as evaluated by the respondents (1.38).

3. There is a significant difference noted in the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers when grouped according to hospital they were connected (ρ = 0.005); nationality (ρ = 0.002) and in terms of their salary (ρ = 0.004). However, there is no significant difference in their perceived leadership style when they are clustered according to their educational attainment (ρ = 0.232); gender (ρ = 0.292); age (ρ = 0.851); years of experience (ρ = 0.533); and on the trainings they attended (ρ = 0.484).

4. There is a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on their nurse managers’ leadership styles when they are group according to salary received (ρ = 0.005). On the other hand, no significant difference was evident when respondents were grouped according to their age (ρ = 0.497), hospital connected (ρ = 0.127), years of experience (ρ = 0.553) and educational attainment (ρ = 0.169).

5. There is no significant difference in the perceived leadership styles between the nurse managers and staff nurses’ perception on the nurse managers leadership styles (ρ = 0.719).

6. As perceived by the staff nurses the leadership style of nurse managers as regard to outcomes leadership reveal that all three dimensions of outcomes leadership namely extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction are perceived by them to be fairly often evident in their management leadership behavior (2.92).

7. There is a significant relationship between the transformational leadership to the outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (ρ = 0.000), effectiveness (ρ = 0.000), and satisfaction (ρ = 0.000). In like manner, when nurse managers continuously display transactional leadership, the outcomes of leadership although it reveals low relationship but is increasing too in the areas of extra effort (ρ =0.029) and effectiveness (ρ = 0.008) but no significant relationship is evident in terms of satisfaction (ρ = 0.518). However, the nurse managers laissez-faire leadership has no relationship in their outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (ρ = 0.913), effectiveness (ρ = 0.155), and satisfaction (P=0.985).

4. Discussion
This descriptive study has provided insight into nurse managers’ leadership characteristics in hospital settings in Hail City. Results indicated similar perceptions of the leadership styles of nurse managers between head nurse respondents and staff nurse respondents. This contradicts the study of [32] on nursing management leadership styles, which observed that subordinates disagree almost totally with their managers’ opinion about their managerial leadership style. Both groups of respondents perceived that there was correlation between outcomes of leadership and transformational leadership styles as reflected in the results were often demonstrated. These findings imply that the nurse managers as well as the staff nurses had common perceptions that outcomes leadership and transformational leadership styles prevailed in this environment. On the one hand, [33] emphasized the importance of transformational leadership, which indicates the need for further attention to training and development of effective leadership behaviors. On the other hand, [34] claimed that transformational leadership in nursing has been associated with highly performing teams and improved patient care. Furthermore, both nurse managers and staff nurses believed that laissez-faire leadership behavior was manifested occasionally. The low scores for this leadership style indicate that it had a negative effect on desired outcomes. A nurse manager has an important role in leading the work unit as a whole. In the study by [35], nurses reported that nursing leadership was considered as being present and available in daily work, because a work unit is seen as a reflection of the nurse leader’s leadership style. Additionally, [36] emphasized that leaders should encourage their employees to develop goals and plan to achieve them, thereby influencing their professional development. Nurse leaders are strongly expected to be self-motivated, to share common goals, and they must possess the internal drive to finish the job at hand because they have important roles in the administration of the nursing organization and affect people’s lives and attitudes towards their profession [37].

Despite the lack of significant differences in the perception of leadership styles between nurse managers and staff nurses, the nurse managers scored transactional leadership style considerably lower than did the staff nurses. This finding is consistent with those of [38] and [13], which stressed that nurse managers perceived themselves as having fewer transactional behaviors than the staff nurses’ perceptions. In the study conducted by [39], there was a positive association between the satisfaction levels among employees and the styles of leadership (transactional and transformational). The staff believed that there was a greater use of transactional and transformational styles of leadership by the nurse managers. [40] as well as [41] concurred with such a finding. In the present study, the staff nurses believed that their nurse managers used transformational leadership more often than other styles.

5. Conclusion and Recommendation
The findings of this study indicate that information about a nurse manager’s perception of their own leadership style and the perception of the staff nurses on nurse managers’ leadership behavior will provide directions for the continuing education and professional development of future leaders. The unanimity of the respondents’ perception on the leadership style of the nurse managers gave a clear picture of the nurse manager’s skills and knowledge in the use of different leadership styles because both the nurse managers and their staff nurses did evaluations. These evaluations highlight the need for head nurses to reflect more on their practices and somehow to find new ways for further enhancement of their transformational- and outcome-based leadership styles, which are believed to be most effective in bringing about positive outcomes for health care providers and patients.

5.1.Recommendation
In today’s health care environment, there is a need to develop leadership behaviors that are proven effective in implementing positive and adaptive behaviors among nurse leaders. It is important that nurse managers be given the opportunity and training to hone their management skills further. From the results of this study, it is evident that managers need access to continued leadership training and feedback from staff nurses on their leadership behaviors.

Acknowledgements
All authors would like to the thank University of Hail (UoH) for providing funds to support this research project. Our special thanks are extended to the nursing managers and staff who participated in this research.

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Appendix A Results in Tables
Problem 1. Define the profiles of nurse managers and staff nurses in terms of:
a. Age

b. Gender

c. Nationality

d. Educational attainment

e. Hospital location

f. Years of experience

g. Trainings attended

g. Salary

Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Nurse Managers and Staff Nurses

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Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the thirty eight (38) nurse manager-respondents according to age, gender, nationality, educational attainment, hospital location, years of experience and salary. The data reveal that the age range of the subjects was 20-64 with the highest percentage (55.3%) falling between 20-30 years of age. In terms of gender, 76.3% of the respondents were females while the remaining 23.7% were males. The table also highlights that most (68.4%) of the participants were Saudi nationals who obtained a bachelor’s degree in nursing (65.8%). As to hospital location, many (34.2%) respondents were employed in Maternity Hospital who held 1-10 (68.4%) years of experience as nurse mangers. Further, a majority of the respondents indicated a no (55.3%) response to trainings attended however, receiving a monthly salary of 10 001-15 000 SR (47.4%).

In like manner, the table also displays the demographic profile of the staff nurse-respondents (N=196) in relation to age, gender, nationality, educational attainment, hospital location, years of experience, trainings attended and salary. Participants in this study were primarily aged 20-30 years (64.3%) dominated by females (87.2%) who were Saudi nationals (60.2%). The highest level of education reported by the participants is master’s degree; however, most of them are holders of bachelor’s degree in nursing (54.1%). Moreover, many (45.4%) of the respondents were employed in King Khalid Hospital and least of them were affiliated with Hail Mental Hospital (10.2%). A greater majority of the staff nurse respondents indicated a no (84.2%) response with respect to trainings attended and as regards to salary, most of them received a monthly compensation of 10 001-15 000 SR (65.8%) which is similar to the salary received by head nurse respondents.

Problem 2. Define the leadership styles of nurse managers as perceived by:
a. Nurse managers themselves

b. Staff nurses

Table 2. Leadership Style of the Nurse Managers as rated by themselves and Staff Nurses

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Table 2 displays the mean response of nurse managers’ perception of their leadership style and perception of staff nurses on the leadership style of their nurse managers. In terms of transformational leaderships, results indicate that head nurses fairly often influenced their subordinates through employment of all five critical strategies of transformational leadership: attributed idealized influence; behavioral idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration (3.03). The results imply that nurse managers consistently employ transformational leadership in managing their staff. In like manner, the staff nurses’ responses of “fairly often” to all dimensions reflect that they believe their superiors to be demonstrating the characteristics of a transformational leader. According to reference [42], transformational leadership is widely believed to be the most effective leadership style and utilizing this style tends to bring about positive outcomes.

Descriptive statistics of perceived leadership style of head nurses in terms of transactional leadership factors is also shown in Table 2 which include contingent reward, active management-by-exception and passive management-by-exception (2.22). The results show that nurse managers perceived themselves to fairly often demonstrate contingent reward and active management by perceptions and once in a while exhibit passive management by exception. Moreover, the staff nurses also perceived that the nurse managers do sometimes display transactional leadership (2.30)

The findings on the self-evaluation of nurse managers’ perception of their leadership behavior in terms of laissez-faire leadership style reveal a mean of 1.05 which indicates a once in a while manifestation where staff nurses have the same observation on the leadership style of their nurse managers in regard to laissez-faire leadership (1.38).

Overall, the data show that among the identified leadership styles of nurse managers, the respondents perceived that they fairly often displayed transformational leadership (3.03) styles. Moreover, they perceive to sometimes demonstrate transactional leadership and once in a while employ laissez-faire leadership. Staff nurses believed that they are managed by their superiors utilizing Transformational leadership (2.85) and Transactional leadership (2.30). Further, results also reveal that Laissez-faire leadership is employed by their superiors only once in a while as evaluated by the respondents.

Leadership theory and research in the new millennium:
Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives
Jessica E. Dinh a
, Robert G. Lord b
, William L. Gardner c
, Jeremy D. Meuser d
,
Robert C. Liden d
, Jinyu Hu c
a University of Akron, United States
b Durham University, United Kingdom
c Texas Tech University, United States
d University of Illinois at Chicago, United States
article info abstract
Article history:
Received 1 August 2013
Received in revised form 18 October 2013
Accepted 31 October 2013
Available online 28 November 2013
Editor: Francis J. Yammarino
Scholarly research on the topic of leadership has witnessed a dramatic increase over the
last decade, resulting in the development of diverse leadership theories. To take stock of
established and developing theories since the beginning of the new millennium, we conducted
an extensive qualitative review of leadership theory across 10 top-tier academic publishing
outlets that included The Leadership Quarterly, Administrative Science Quarterly, American
Psychologist, Journal of Management, Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management
Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
Organizational Science, and Personnel Psychology. We then combined two existing frameworks
(Gardner, Lowe, Moss, Mahoney, & Cogliser, 2010; Lord & Dinh, 2012) to provide a processoriented framework that emphasizes both forms of emergence and levels of analysis as a
means to integrate diverse leadership theories. We then describe the implications of the
findings for future leadership research and theory.
Published by Elsevier Inc.
Keywords:
Leadership theory
Levels of analysis
Global compositional and compilational forms
of emergence
Content analysis
1. Introduction
Since its inception in 1988 (first issue in 1990), the mission of The Leadership Quarterly (LQ) has been to sustain and catalyze
the development of innovative, multi-disciplinary research that advances the leadership field. Nearly 25 years later, this goal,
along with many of the journal's other primary objectives, has been reached (Gardner, Lowe, Moss, Mahoney, & Cogliser, 2010).
As Gardner and colleagues noted in their 20-year review of LQ, leadership research has grown exponentially in the last decade,
attracting the interest of talented scholars and practitioners from around the globe who have revolutionized the way we
understand leadership phenomena. As their review demonstrates, the number of new leadership theories has grown and the field
has advanced from theory that focuses on understanding general leadership processes as they occur over indeterminate amounts
of time to a phenomenon that evolves over different time spans depending on the hierarchical level at which leaders are
investigated (Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). Theories have also developed to understand how micro processes, such as
perceptions, emotions, and cognitions (e.g., Bono & Ilies, 2006; Dinh & Lord, 2012; Lee, Aaker, & Gardner, 2000; Trichas & Schyns,
2012), and macro processes, such as the social–relational context (Chang & Johnson, 2010; DeRue & Ashford, 2010; Erdogan,
Kraimer, & Liden, 2007; Gardner & Avolio, 1998; Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997), dynamically affect follower and leader
outcomes. Over the last two decades, leadership scholars have also developed theories to explain a leader's role within complex
The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.E. Dinh), [email protected] (R.G. Lord), [email protected] (W.L. Gardner), [email protected]
(J.D. Meuser), [email protected] (R.C. Liden), [email protected] (J. Hu).
1048-9843/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The Leadership Quarterly
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/leaqua
systems for instigating organizational change and managing dynamic social networks (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006; Balkundi, Kilduff,
& Harrison, 2011; Hannah, Lord, & Pearce, 2011; Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2002; Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009).
Although the growing diversity of leadership theory has helped create an academic agenda for leadership research in the new
millennium, we maintain that there are several challenges that accompany the rapid proliferation of new theoretical perspectives.
In this article, we provide a critical review of leadership theory that has emerged since 2000, and we describe the challenges that
scholars and practitioners must address to further advance the leadership field. Our search included theories from nine other
top-tier journals in addition to LQ, allowing us to offer a broader and more comprehensive review of the topics that have captured
the attention of leadership scholars. Rather than provide a detailed summary of the theories that have been identified, this article
focuses on addressing one fundamental process-centered issue that is germane to all theories: how has leadership theory and
research contributed to our understanding of the processes by which antecedent elements affect outcomes pertaining to leaders,
followers, or organizational phenomena?
We believe that attention to processes is important for the following reasons. First, understanding leadership processes can
help illustrate the limitations of current theory, and it can assist in the development of a more comprehensive agenda for
leadership research in the new millennium with direct relevance to organizational practice (Langley, Smallman, Tsoukas, & Van
de Ven, 2013). This is important because leadership is a complex phenomenon that operates across multiple levels of analysis
(Cho & Dansereau, 2010; Wang & Howell, 2010), involves multiple mediating and moderating factors (e.g., DeRue, Nahrgang,
Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011), and takes place over substantial periods of time (Day & Sin, 2011; Lord & Brown, 2004). However,
leadership scholars have more often focused on the isolated effects of leaders or followers at one or another level of analysis and
within short time intervals. Such a static approach is reflected in scholarly work on leadership, which has predominantly relied on
cross-sectional retrospective survey methodologies (Gardner et al., 2010; Hunter, Bedell-Avers, & Mumford, 2007; Lowe &
Gardner, 2000). This approach ignores the cumulated effects of transitory processes, such as emotions, thoughts, reactions, and
embodied cognitions, which can fundamentally alter leader development and behavioral outcomes (Day & Sin, 2011; Lord,
Hannah, & Jennings, 2011).
Second, leadership dynamics involve multiple levels and can produce both top-down and bottom-up emergent outcomes at
higher and lower levels of analysis (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2011; Yammarino, Dionne, Chun, & Dansereau, 2005). For example,
by shaping organizational climates and cultures, leaders can create ethical norms that guide the moral (or immoral) behavior of
groups or collectives in a top-down direction (Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes, & Salvador, 2009; Schaubroeck, Hannah,
Avolio, Kozlowski, Lord, et al., 2012). Simultaneously, leaders may also appeal directly to individuals by aligning followers' values
and identities to those of the organization (Brown & Treviño, 2009), enforcing codes of conduct (Tyler & Blader, 2005), or by
modeling ethical (or unethical) behavior (Brown & Treviño, 2006). Although these processes reflect top-down leadership
influences, bottom-up processes, such as the influence of followers and intrapersonal dynamics, are also important in
understanding how leaders influence organizations and how leadership outcomes are achieved (Dinh & Lord, 2012; Howell &
Shamir, 2005; Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2002; Shamir, 2007). For example, research on meta-cognitive processes and self-complexity
describes how dynamic intra-personal constructs can interact over time to increase intrapersonal complexity, which allows
individuals to have greater behavioral adaptability in response to varying situations (Hannah, Woolfolk, & Lord, 2009; Lord et al.,
2011). At higher levels of analysis, individual complexity allows a variety of social networks to develop into valuable
organizational resources (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006; Balkundi et al., 2011), and it can produce group complexity when team
members interact, thereby creating more complex knowledge structures that guide group behavior (Hannah et al., 2011). At this
level, group processes can also aggregate to create intangible organizational resources like social capital (Polyhart & Moliterno,
2011). As these examples show, leadership involves the contribution of multiple actors and bidirectional influence (top-down
and bottom-up) that unfolds along different time scales (from minutes to years). Therefore, leadership theory that is narrowly
confined to one level of analysis presents an overly restricted static understanding of leadership phenomena.
Third, prior research indicates that we know much less about how leaders make organizations effective than how leaders are
perceived (Kaiser et al., 2008). We believe this dearth of knowledge on how leaders create effective organizations stems from a
focus on leaders and their qualities rather than on how they change processes in other individuals, groups, or organizations. To
address these issues in leadership research and theory, this article expands upon an existing classification scheme that was
developed by Gardner et al. (2010) and the framework developed by Lord and Dinh (2012, described in Section 3), which
maintains that a key aspect of leadership is to structure the way that the inputs of others are combined to produce organizational
outputs. The advantage of these classification schemes is that they offer unique insight for organizing theory based on underlying
leadership processes (Lord & Dinh, 2012) and have been successful in organizing leadership research (Gardner et al., 2010; Lowe
& Gardner, 2000). By integrating these two classification schemes, we provide several additional contributions to the leadership
literature.
Though abstract, addressing the nature of emergence provides a set of conceptual tools that can be used at any level of analysis,
and it offers the potential for discovering leadership principles that apply at multiple levels. For example, focusing on each theory's
underlying process enables us to organize the extant literature by identifying commonalities among theories. These commonalities
may then suggest deeper principles that unite disparate leadership theories. In addition, a framework that can organize theory
by levels of analysis is critical because leadership occurs within a social context created by individuals, groups, and larger
organizational systems, and the nature of leadership processes may vary with each level. Hence, attention to both levels and
process can promote a richer understanding of how simultaneously occurring phenomenon at different levels of analysis interact
to influence leadership. Finally, such issues have practical as well as scholarly implications. Currently, practitioners wanting to use
scientific research to improve organizational leadership processes must select from a bewildering array of theories that focus on
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 37
competing levels of analysis. Organizing these theories in terms of processes that produce individual, dyadic, group, and
organizational outcomes may help practitioners focus on theories that fit with their organization's core technologies and social
systems, and address pressing organizational concerns.
To accomplish our objectives, we partitioned this article into three major sections. In Section 2, we provide an overview of the
trends in leadership theory that have appeared since the beginning of the new millennium, a description of our data collection
method, and conclusions regarding the theories that have remained at the forefront of research and theories that have (re)surfaced
since 2000. In Section 3, we provide a more thorough description of our organizing framework, which classifies theories based on
each theory's level of analysis and underlying process, which we use to organize the leadership literature. In Section 4, we offer our
conclusions regarding the overall literature and make suggestions for the development of more integrative leadership theory and
research, as well as address the practical and theoretical implications of this review to guide future research.
2. Content analysis methods
2.1. Sample
We began by searching the 10 journals identified in Table 1 known for publishing leadership research that also have high
impact factors and regularly appear at the top of journal ranking lists in the field of organizational behavior. We performed a
manual search for leadership, restricting our search to articles published between 2000 and September 2012. This search yielded
989 total hits. We downloaded these articles and applied the following two selection criteria. First, the article had to be original
research, whether qualitative, quantitative, theoretical, or methodological, thus eliminating such items as letters, editorials, and
book reviews. Second, the abstract was reviewed to determine whether leadership was the primary, rather than peripheral focus
of the article. Those that failed either or both of these two selection criteria (237 articles) were rejected from inclusion, leaving
752 articles. (A full list of the articles included is available upon request).
Table 1 reports the number of articles found in each journal. LQ, as a specialty journal dedicated to the publication of
leadership research, dominated our dataset (442 articles), which is to be expected. Journal of Applied Psychology ranked second
(125 articles) in terms of the quantity of published leadership research, and amounted to notably more articles than the
remainder of journals we examined. Organizational Science (7 articles) and Academy of Management Review (8 articles) published
the fewest number of leadership articles of the journals we examined.
2.2. Coding procedure and categories
We coded these articles according to a strict protocol that had been agreed upon by the authors. We also used a Microsoft
Access 2010 database that we designed to accommodate the specific fields that we coded. This eliminated common coding errors,
such as typos and inconsistent nomenclature and provided for consistency between coders. For each article, our database
contains: journal name, year of publication, title, keywords (if available), authors, abstract, type of article, data collection timing
and research method, analytical method, leadership theory categorization, level of analysis, form of emergence, and emergence/
theory match/mismatch. Our coding for type of study involved four categories: qualitative, quantitative, theoretical, or
methodological. Our data collection timing categories included cross-sectional, cross-sectional with time lag intended to reduce
common method variance (e.g., independent variables collected at time 1 and dependent variables collected at time 2), and
longitudinal (where the same variables are collected at multiple time points). Our categorization of research method refines and
expands the list of research strategies listed in Gardner et al. (2010). Specifically, we coded for qualitative (case study), content
analysis (the counting of words or phrases in qualitative, interview, or verbatim response data to produce a quantitative dataset
for analysis), diary or experiential sampling (which requires participants to answer questions at periodic or at random times
determined by the researcher), computer simulation (in which real world conditions are modeled and artificial data produced),
lab experiment (which involves the execution of tasks devoid of contextual realities), experimental simulation (similar to a lab
experiment, but with an attempt to model or simulate a context), field experiment (conducting experimental tasks or applied
Table 1
Number of leadership research articles published in 10 top-tier journals (2000–2012).
Journal Numbers of articles
Academy of Management Journal 45
Academy of Management Review 8
Administrative Science Quarterly 30
American Psychologist 13
Journal of Applied Psychology 125
Journal of Management 30
Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes 30
Organizational Science 7
Personnel Psychology 22
The Leadership Quarterly 442
Total number of articles 752
38 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
research), judgment task (which involves participants rating or judging the behavior of others), field survey-primary (data
collected by the researcher directly from participants), field survey-secondary (data used in the study are from archival data),
sample survey (which attempts to obtain a sample representative of the population of interest), meta-analytic quantitative
review, non-meta-analytic qualitative review, and methodology study (in which new methods are described and tested, or
existing methods refined). Our analytical method coding scheme followed Scandura and Williams (2000) and was also used by
Gardner and colleagues (2010). Specifically, we coded for: 1) linear regression; 2) analysis of variance (ANOVA/MANOVA);
3) linear techniques for categorical dependent variables; 4) factor analysis (Exploratory Factor Analysis [EFA]/Confirmatory Factor
Analysis [CFA]); 5) Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)/path analysis; 6) multiple-levels-of analysis techniques (e.g., hierarchical
linear modeling [HLM]); 7) meta-analytic techniques (e.g., Hunter & Schmidt, 2004); 8) time series/event history techniques;
9) non-parametric techniques; and 10) computer simulation techniques.
The leadership theory categorization scheme we employed to classify leadership theories was based on several factors. First, we
applied the criteria for theory specified by Bacharach (1989) to guide our identification of theories. Second, we adopted as a
starting point the classification scheme that Lowe and Gardner (2000) initially developed and Gardner et al. (2010) refined in
their reviews of articles published in LQ's first and second decades, respectively. Note that Gardner et al. (2010) provide a detailed
description of the development of this theory classification scheme (see pages 934–935 and the Appendix A). Third, we
augmented the thematic leadership categories throughout the early stages of coding, as we encountered leadership approaches
that did not fit the existing category scheme. Our final coding scheme can be found in the Appendix A. Level of analysis and form of
emergence were coded using the scheme found in Lord and Dinh (2012) and described in Section 3. In brief, form of emergence
describes whether the leadership theory implies that constituent sub-units combine to create higher-order unit-level properties
in a way that preserves or alters their fundamental nature. Finally, emergence/theory match/mismatch was a Boolean field
indicating if the methods used in the article corresponded to the level of analysis and the form of aggregation implied by the
theory. In this test of theory, mismatches occurred most often when the underlying processes implied by theory were not
examined at the appropriate level of analysis (e.g., a group-level phenomenon investigated by using individual scores, an
event-level phenomenon investigated by aggregated individual scores), or when dynamic and/or longitudinal processes were
examined using retrospective survey methods or when data sampling occurred at one point in time. It should be emphasized that
theories found within empirical research articles were tested by examining whether the method for capturing the process leading
to a particular leadership phenomenon was appropriate based on the underlying processes implied by the theory used, rather
than whether the article included specific leadership outcomes. Additionally, it should be noted that across all coded fields,
articles often fit more than one category within each coded field. For example, an article may involve meta-analytic and SEM
techniques or involve two leadership theories. This was also the case with forms of emergence where articles described
simultaneously occurring processes.
In order to code this extensive literature, coding was completed by two independent teams. All articles were coded for form of
emergence and emergence/theory match/mismatch by the first or second author, and a random subsample of 14 was coded by
both authors yielding an agreement of 86% percent. The remaining categories were coded by the remainder of the research team
and a random sample of 10% of the coded articles was drawn for blind re-coding by a different member of the research team. We
then computed inter-rater reliability agreement for our coded variables at 82.9%. As this exceeded the commonly accepted
reliability threshold, we discussed and resolved differences in coding, and then proceeded with analysis.
2.3. The status of the established leadership theories
Table 2 contains the leadership theories that emerged from our coding process. We grouped them categorically under
established and emergent theories and thematically within those broader categories. Neo-charismatic theories, which emerged
historically from charismatic leadership theory, received the most attention from scholars in the new millennium (total 294
instances), with transformational leadership and charismatic leadership, respectively, representing the dominant forms of
interest. Leadership and information processing received the second largest quantity of interest (total 194 instances), with leader
and follower cognitions and implicit leadership, highlighted by House and Aditya (1997) as an emerging theory at the time,
dominating that category. Together, this category takes into account the cognitive structures of leaders, followers, and
decision-making. This thematic category also answers questions like “what do I think leadership means?” and “what do I think is
important?” by suggesting that these mental structures are built up in part from experience. These research questions have been
investigated since the late 1970s (e.g., Lord, Binning, Rush, & Thomas, 1978), and our findings suggest that this thematic category
continues to capture the interest of researchers.
Social exchange/relational theories were also quite common (156 instances). Leader–member exchange (LMX), the archetypal
social exchange leader–follow dyadic approach that investigates the quality of the relationship experienced within the dyad,
appeared in 115 instances. An important LMX advancement during the present millennium can be found in the meta-analysis of
Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, and Ferris (2012), which offers an antecedents and outcomes model of LMX, responding to the
call of House and Aditya (1997) for just such a model. Dispositional/trait theories comprised another common thematic category
(149 instances). Trait based leadership approaches are still of interest (117 instances) to researchers. However, it is noteworthy
that only in 11 instances were traits solely investigated; the 106 remaining investigated traits in concert with at least one other
leadership approach in our taxonomy. Judge, Piccolo, and Kosalka (2009) offer a thoughtful review of the trait based approach as
well as a trait based model of leadership emergence and effectiveness, including mediators and moderators, which is an example
of the advancements in the trait based approach that integrate with other leadership theories.
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 39
Table 2
Frequency, percentage, and overall rank of leadership theories grouped by thematic category (published in 10 top-tier journals, 2000 – 2012).
Established theories Frequency % Rank Emerging theories Frequency % Rank
Neo-charismatic theories 294 39 1 Strategic Leadership 182 24 1
Transformational leadership 154 20 1 Strategic/top executive 92 12 6
Charismatic leadership 78 10 7 Upper echelons theory 70 9 8
Transactional leadership 35 5 17 Public leadership 20 3 26
Ideological/pragmatic, outstanding leadership 12 2 29
Self-sacrificing leadership 8 1 33
Pygmalion effects 5 b1 35
Inspirational leadership 2 b1 38
Leadership and Information Processing 194 26 2 Team Leadership 112 15 2
Leader and follower cognition 95 13 5 Leadership in team and decision groups 112 15 4
Implicit leadership 50 7 12
Attribution theories of leadership 29 4 21
Information processing and decision making 20 3 26
Social Exchange/Relational 156 21 3 Contextual, Complexity and System Perspectives of Leadership 110 15 3
Leadership Theories
Leader-member exchange (LMX) 115 15 3 Contextual theories of leadership 42 6 14
Relational leadership 32 4 18 Social network theories of leadership 31 4 19
Vertical dyadic linkage (VDL) 8 1 33 Complexity Theories of leadership 23 3 23
Individualized leadership 1 b1 39 Integrative leadership 14 2 28
Dispositional/Trait Theories 149 20 4 Leader Emergence and Development 102 14 4
Trait theories 117 16 2 Leadership development 67 9 9
Leadership skills/competence 30 4 20 Leadership emergence 35 5 17
Leader motive profile theory 2 b1 38
Leadership and Diversity; 81 11 5 Ethical/Moral Leadership Theories 80 11 5
Cross-Cultural Leadership
Leadership and diversity 49 7 13 Authentic leadership theory 31 4 19
Cross-cultural leadership 32 4 18 Ethical leadership theory 24 3 22
Spiritual leadership theory 14 2 28
Servant leadership theory 11 1 30
Follower-Centric Leadership Theories 69 9 6 Leading for Creativity, Innovation and Change 72 9 6
Followership theories 54 7 11 Leading for creativity and innovation 39 5 16
Romance of leadership 12 2 29 Leading organizational change 22 3 24
Aesthetic leadership 3 b1 37 Leading for organizational learning and knowledge 11 1 30
Behavioral Theories 64 8 7 Identity-Based Leadership Theories 60 8 7
Participative, shared leadership; 41 5 15 Social identity theory of leadership 31 4 19
delegation and empowerment Identity and identification process 29 4 21
Behavioral approaches (OSU/LBDQ) 17 2 27 theories of leadership
Leadership reward and punishment behavior 6 1 34
Contingency Theories 55 7 8 Other Nascent Approaches 101 13 8
Path-goal theory 10 1 31 Emotions and leadership 59 8 10
Situational leadership theory 10 1 31 Destructive/abusive/toxic leadership 22 3 24
Contingency leadership theory 9 1 32 Biological approaches to leadership 11 1 30
Leadership substitute theory 5 b1 35 E-leadership 4 b1 36
Adaptive leadership theory 5 b1 35 Leader error and recovery 3 b1 37
Normative decision model 5 b1 35 Entrepreneurial leadership 2 b1 37
Cognitive resource theory 4 b1 36
Life cycle theory 3 b1 37
Multiple linkage model 2 b1 38
Flexible leadership theories 2 b1 38
Power and Influence of Leadership 52 7 9
Power and influence of leadership 31 4 19
Political theory and influence tactics of leadership 21 3 25
Notes:
1. The total frequency exceeds the number of articles because articles often employ multiple theoretical frameworks.
2. Percentage is calculated by using the frequency divided by the total number of articles, i.e., 752.
3. There is a summary frequency and percentage for each paradigm.
40 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Reflecting a concern with greater social equality, there were many articles that addressed leadership and diversity, and cross-cultural
issues (81 instances). Follower-centric leadership theories (69 instances) also reflect this trend, and a concern with shared leadership,
though not a explicit coding category, seems to have flourished in the past decade (e.g., Pearce, Conger, & Locke, 2008).
There are some theories, however, which seem to have attracted less interest during our period of inquiry. While Judge, Piccolo, and
Ilies (2004) called for more research into the behavioral approach consisting of initiating structure and consideration, labeling these
constructs “the forgotten ones,” researchers have not responded in force. We discovered a relatively modest 17 instances, but these were
distributed consistently over our period of inquiry. Another area of dwindling research interest can be found in the classic contingency
theory thematic category. Collectively, we found 55 instances investigating one or more of these theories, but as shown in Table 2, these
were distributed across ten theories ranging from two to ten articles. This is a notable finding as House and Aditya (1997) placed
contingency theories among the dominant approaches in their comprehensive review of the leadership literature at the close of the last
millennium. Further, we note that the reformulated path-goal theory, called the values-based leadership theory (House, Shane, & Herold,
1996), seems to have been neglected by researchers. However, the branch of path-goal theory that led to the charismatic leadership
theory and the subsequent neo-charismatic thematic category has captured a great deal of interest. Indeed, House and Aditya (1997, p.
464), observed that “[p]ath-Goal Theory led to conceptualization of the 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership…”.
2.4. Emerging leadership theories
We note that while significant research is still occurring at the dyadic level, interest in strategic leadership approaches is the most
prolific of the emerging leadership theories (182 instances) of any of the emerging thematic categories. This is a notable shift in research
interest given that prior to the present millennium, this was an under-researched topic (Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1996; House & Aditya,
1997). The team literature has been recognized as being relevant given that much strategy formation occurs within top management
teams. Team leadership has seen a significant increase in the quantity of recent research (112 instances), and a team approach was often
combined with more established theories (e.g., 11 with trait, 15 with LMX, and 30 with transformational leadership). This suggests that
leadership researchers are beginning to appreciate the social context in which the leader operates and his or her effect on the team as a
whole, addressing a global shortcoming of leadership research that often operates at the dyadic level (House & Aditya, 1997). The
systems thematic category consists of contextual, complexity, social network and integrative approaches, each of which attempts to
capture various aspects of the contextual features within which leadership phenomena unfold. The fact that this thematic category is the
third most prolific of the emerging leadership approaches (110 instances, 15% of the total 752 articles coded) might indicate that context
of leadership is no longer the “neglected side of leadership” (Osborn, Hunt, & Jauch, 2002, p. 797) and that the charge that a “void still
exists in the research literature” (Porter & McLaughlin, 2006, p. 560) with regard to the role of context no longer applies, given the
increased attention to contextual factors we identified. However, while progress has been made, we still consider this to be an
under-researched topic, given the central importance of context to the emergence and manifestation of leadership processes. A related
thematic category, leading for creativity, innovation, and change is another team- and systems-based approach that has seen significant
research during our period of inquiry (72 instances). It elaborates on the processes by which teams and systems adjust over time to
dynamic environments. Together, these findings are encouraging and suggest that leadership researchers are continuing to advance the
study of leadership, addressing shortcomings of the research program identified at the close of the last millennium — e.g., the lack of
attention to contextual, team, and overall organizational effects of leadership — and are doing so at all organizational levels.
The thoughtful review of leadership by House and Aditya (1997) at the close of the last millennium also identified leadership
training and development as an opportunity for future research, and our findings suggest that researchers have answered this call
as shown by extensive activity in the leader emergence and development thematic category (102 instances). Leadership
development (67 instances), the study of methods by which an organization increases within its membership social capital
resources necessary to engage in leadership activities (McCauley, Moxley, & Van Velsor, 1998), and leadership emergence (35
instances), the study of who, and under what conditions, will be recognized as a leader, have together seen an impressive
quantity of research our period of inquiry. While leadership development is not a new concept (Day, 2000), research continues to
explore its complexities, addressing questions such as who seeks out developmental opportunities (Dragoni, Tesluk, Russell, & Oh,
2009), why individuals who experience the same developmental opportunity emerge with different learning outcomes (DeRue,
Nahrgang, Hollenbeck, & Workman, 2012), and the interaction between traits and experience (Dinh & Lord, 2012; Van Iddekinge,
Ferris, & Heffner, 2009) with regard to leadership development. Day (2000) noted that there had been a great amount of interest
in charismatic and transformational leadership with respect to leadership development, and called for a broadening of leadership
development beyond these two models. However, we found no articles during our period of inquiry that investigated leadership
development with charismatic leadership and only five of the 67 articles that investigated transformational leadership, suggesting
that Day's call for a broadening of interest with respect to leadership development is being answered as the preponderance of
leadership development research in our dataset (62 of 67) investigates other facets of leadership development.
Leadership emergence research, similar to research on leadership development, is also concerned with traits (Foti &
Hauenstein, 2007; Wolff, Pescosolido, & Druskat, 2002) and experiences (Avolio, Rotundo, & Walumbwa, 2009) that predispose a
person to emerge as a leader. Encouragingly, scholars are even investigating this question using a systems approach (Lichtenstein
& Plowman, 2009) and in novel team contexts, such as shared leadership (Carson, Tesluk, & Marrone, 2007) and virtual teams
(Balthazard, Waldman, & Warren, 2009). Again, it is promising that researchers are taking a broader view of leadership
emergence, investigating traits, behaviors, and experiences in a variety of contexts.
Several scholars have noted increased concern with regard to the ethical/moral values-based content of a leader's behavior (80
instances). We noted four leadership theories, which together share common interest in positive, humanistic behaviors address another
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 41
shortcoming of leadership research identified at the close of the last millennium. Most extant theories, even transformational leadership,
failed to (sufficiently) investigate altruistic leader behaviors (Bass, 1999; Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005; Ciulla, 1998; Yukl, 2008).
House and Aditya (1997) suggested that extant theories assumed a hedonistic leader, rather than an altruistic one. Research on altruistic
and deontic theories has shown increased activity over the period reviewed. Authentic leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner,
Cogliser, Davis, & Dickens, 2011) describes leaders who are self-aware, process positive and negative ego-relevant information in a
balanced fashion, achieve relational transparency with close others, and are guided in their actions by an internalized moral perspective
(31 instances). Though honesty, trust, and integrity are not new concepts within the leadership domain, ethical leadership theory
(Brown & Treviño, 2006) builds on social learning theory and highlights the importance of these behaviors embodied within the leader
who reinforces these values through role modeling, rewards and punishments, and communications about ethics in order to set the
organization's moral tone (Mayer, Aquino, Greenbaum, & Kuenzi, 2012). Servant leadership theory (Liden, Panaccio, Meuser, Hu, &
Wayne, in press; Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008), while older than transformational leadership theory, did not attract
researcher attention until the present millennium (see Graham, 1991, for one exception). Perhaps servant leadership was slow to attract
researcher interest because the theory was introduced by Robert K. Greenleaf (1970), a retired AT&T manager, rather than a member of
the research community. While there exist many multi-dimension taxonomies and corresponding measures for servant leadership, Van
Dierendonck (2011) argued that Liden and colleagues (2008; Hu & Liden, 2011) and Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) present the
most promising measures for continued research in this area. Spiritual leadership (Fry, 2003) encompasses the notion that leaders
embody a vision, practice altruistic love, and instill hope, faith, and perseverance in attaining organizational goals. Fry (2003) suggests
that spiritual leaders convey an organizational vision that is deeply and personally motivating to followers and develop a nurturing
organizational culture of care, appreciation, and support for coworkers that inspires a sense of belonging. Although introduced in the
present millennium, these leadership theories have seen an impressive quantity of research within a short time frame.
Identity based perspectives are seeing an impressive increase in interest as the millennium progresses (60 instances). In part,
this thematic category consists of the newly introduced social identity theory of leadership (Hogg, 2001), which describes the
emergence of a leader as being based on a group member's resemblance to a prototypical leader as determined by other group
members. Given the recent introduction of this theory, it is notable that we discovered 31 instances of this approach. An
alternative stream of research stems from Brewer and Gardner's (1996) articulation of three identity levels (individual, relational,
and collective) that can be emphasized by leaders influencing a variety of organizational outcomes (Chang & Johnson, 2010). This
area of research has observed comparable growth with 29 identified instances.
We noted a number of other emerging approaches that we could not easily classify into a larger thematic category, as can be seen at
the bottom of Table 2. Three of these deserve special recognition because of their increasing popularity. The emotions and leadership
category encompasses research investigating the relationship between leader and follower emotions and the practice and experience
of leadership. It is notable that of the 59 instances found, 40 occurred during the second half of our period of inquiry (i.e., following the
year 2006). Research into “negative” supervisors, such as destructive or abusive supervision and toxic leadership, investigates leaders
who, by their treatment of subordinates, discourage and do harm to the subordinate and the organization. It is notable that of the 22
instances that emerged from our search, 21 of them were found during the second half of our period of inquiry, suggesting that this is
a very new, but a very strong area of emerging research. Finally, we noted a modest 11 instances of leadership using biological or
neuroscience approaches, a trend in its infancy (Lee, Senior, & Butler, 2012). This line of research utilizes genetic, biological, or
neurological (e.g., electroencephalography) data, asking questions about the inheritability of leadership or how brain activity is
associated with the memory of, or exercising of leadership behaviors. Exemplifying the contribution of LQ to the advancement of
leadership research, 10 of those 11 instances can be found in LQ, and seven of those are in a 2012 a special issue dedicated to this topic.
While assuming that all behavior can be explained using genetic and neurological data is a reductionist trap (Evans, 1977; Lee et al.,
2012; Polanyi, 1959), it is important to recognize the complexity of human interaction in a social context, and the value that leveraging
the advances in cognitive neuroscience can bring to the study of leadership.
2.5. Summary
Continuing from Gardner et al. (2010), leadership theory and research form an important cornerstone of organizational
science, and this field has continued to grow in many top-tier publication outlets including LQ and others. Our review of the
leadership literature shows that several theories continue to spark scholarly interest for understanding specific leadership
phenomena (e.g., neo-charismatic leadership theories, leadership and information processing), while interest in other theoretical
domains has waned in more recent years (e.g., contingency theory, behavioral approaches). We have also identified several
research domains that have grown in popularity over the past five years, suggesting growth of new emergent theories (e.g.,
destructive leadership, leadership emergence). Together, our review demonstrates the enormity of the leadership field that has
proliferated since the new millennium, which we foresee will continue to grow in the coming decades.
It is also important to recognize that there are critical voices examining both dominant theories and emerging theories. For
example, Yukl (1999) critiqued the conceptual weaknesses of charismatic leadership theory, such as construct ambiguity and lack
of description of explanatory process. In a more recent assessment, Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) continued to question the
ambiguity of the multi-dimensional definition of charismatic-transformational leadership, its construct validity, and the
insufficient specification of causal processes. In an attempt to avoid these pitfalls of theory development and advancement, more
vigilant efforts are needed to address these issues early on in the development of emerging theories. For instance, Cooper,
Scandura, and Schriesheim (2005) and Gardner et al. (2011) provided comprehensive assessments of the construct development
of authentic leadership and offered suggestions for future research. However, continued growth in theory and research also
42 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
increases urgency for a method of organizing the extant literature. In the following sections, we present a process framework that
focuses on forms of emergence and levels of analysis as a means for organizing theories of leadership.
3. A process framework for organizing theories of leadership
Along with others, we believe that significant contributions to leadership theory can be realized when research jointly
considers the levels of analysis and the underlying processes described by leadership theories (Dansereau, Alutto, & Yammarino,
1984; Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994). With regards to levels of analysis, leadership scholars have traditionally explored the
effects of leadership at the person, dyadic, group, and/or organizational levels. Although attention to these levels of analysis is
most common to leadership research, recent arguments have also highlighted the importance of events as an additional level of
analysis (Dinh & Lord, 2012; Hoffman & Lord, 2013). In general, events refer to time-bounded episodes that happen in a specific
place and time, and can be characterized by features such as being ordinary or unique (e.g., Ballinger & Rockmann, 2010). We
maintain that attention to this finer-grained level of analysis, in addition to more commonly researched levels, is important
because it allows scholars to capture the impact that momentary details have on dynamic structures (e.g., the structure of
personality) and systems. For example, event-level methodologies have enabled leadership researchers to understand how the
manifestations of personality may vary in response to different events (Fleeson, 2001; Read, Monroe, Brownstein, Yang, Chopra,
et al., 2010), and how specific, timely leadership actions can affect leadership ratings of performance (Morgeson, 2005) or the
momentum of complex organizational change processes (Plowman, Baker, Beck, Kulkarni, Solansky, et al., 2007; Tushman &
Romanelli, 1985).
However, leadership scholars have recognized that leaders can be organizational architects who can influence the way inputs
are combined across different levels of analysis to produce unit outputs, often by influencing the actions of others (Lord & Brown,
2004). In this regard, Lord and Dinh (2012) developed a process approach that addresses the nature of emergent processes as a
means to understand an important aspect of many leadership theories. Though originally conceived to explain how leaders
influence the combination of inputs to produce outputs such as group performance, this system is much more general and can be
applied to leadership processes at multiple levels, from explaining how traits are combined to explain leadership perceptions, to
explaining how group member attitudes are combined to produce group climates, to understanding the combination of group
structures to create organizational structure. Although there are many aspects of leadership and social processes as shown by
these examples, we focused specifically on the implications associated with how aspects of lower-level units can be combined to
produce higher-level unit qualities. We believe attention to this issue addresses the core of what is important about leadership in
organizations, which involves systems for combining various forms of inputs to create outputs with higher value. Many
leadership articles discuss such issues, but do not test them explicitly. When that was the case we classified articles by their
underlying theory. For empirical articles, we focused primarily on the presented theory because data handling and statistical
procedures often presented a confusing picture when researchers did not explicitly focus on level of analysis issues.
We maintain that there are three types of emergent processes relevant to leadership, and these are global, compositional, and
compilational forms of emergence. Briefly, global characteristics describe processes that are static, level-specific in nature, and do
not apply to lower levels (e.g., a group's size and demographic diversity are constructs that do not apply to individual group
members). That is, they reflect a wholes level of analysis where the primary focus is between units. In contrast, theories classified
as having compositional or compilational characteristics describe alternative effects of emergent processes. In level of analysis
terms, this is a question of how a parts perspective at a lower level becomes a whole or unit level characteristic at a higher level.
Specifically, compositional characteristics reflect an aggregation of individual components that does not change its fundamental
aspect or quality as a result of aggregation (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000). That is, lower and higher-level constructs are isomorphic.
For example, individual members' emotions in a group may aggregate to group-level affective tone in a manner that preserves but
amplifies the same emotion. As noted by Whetten, Felin, and King (2009), such aggregation maintains the same function for the
sub-unit at higher and lower levels. In contrast, compilational forms of emergence reflect a fundamental change in qualities and
functions of the sub-unit as aggregation from lower to higher levels occurs (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000). For example, a synergistic
aggregation of group member ideas may spark innovation, and as this occurs, relevant functions of individual contributions may
change as the collective solutions emerge. Because many of the newer leadership theories described in the previous sections
involve emergent processes, this compositional/compilational distinction is important because it distinguishes between two key
potential consequences of leadership processes.
A description of emergent unit properties at each level of analysis is provided in Table 3. As this table shows, organizational
phenomena can be classified as having global unit-level properties (ULP) at many levels of analysis. For example, affective events,
individual traits, group demographics, and organizational structures, each describe global aspects of organizational units and each
of these properties are relatively stable over time (Lord & Dinh, 2012). Additionally, organizational phenomena can be classified
as having compositional ULP when individual factors function independently to produce additive or pooled outcomes at a higher
level. For instance, the process of developing knowledge structures or self-efficacy through the gradual accumulation of facts and
interpersonal experiences each can be classified as compositional (e.g., DeChurch & Mesmer-Magnus, 2010; Judge & Bono, 2001).
Last, organizational outcomes that emerge from the interaction among different sub-units to produce new phenomena are
classified as having compilational ULP. These may include the combined effects that cognitions and emotions have on perceivers
when constructing their perceptions of a leader or the combination of divergent group members' ideas to create a new group
output (e.g., Hannah, Uhl-Bien, Avolio, & Cavaretta, 2009; Hannah, et al., 2009; Hogue & Lord, 2007). Here, the composition versus
compilation distinction is particularly important because it differentiates between emergent processes that involve complicated
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 43
systems with many relatively independent units that are functionally similar (compositional aggregation) to those that involve
complex systems, where the many interdependent units interact as outputs are created (compilational aggregation; Page, 2007).
Increasing complexity is widely believed to increase the capacity of the higher level system to adapt to changing unit
environments, so we expect that compilational aggregation offers adaptive advantages compared to compositional aggregation or
stable global unit qualities.
These three emergence forms provide one way to group and link theories with potentially similar consequences. For example,
the development of mental models and homogeneous organizational identities may involve similar compositional processes that
are gradual and strengthen over time with employee experience and development (Day, 2011; Day, Harrison, & Halpin, 2009). In
contrast, the processes that enable leader flexibility and shared leadership may be more dynamic and compilational, changing
from one instance to the next as individuals experience different affective states and cognitive cues (DeRue & Ashford, 2010; Lord
et al., 2011). An intriguing possibility is that different leadership skill sets and systems may be needed to effectively manage these
different processes. As these examples show, attention to underlying processes is important because it demonstrates the potential
diversity in requirements within specific levels of analysis as well as the continuity of phenomena occurring across different
organizational levels.
3.1. Forms of emergence reflected in leadership theory and research
To shed more light on these forms of emergence, we examine the leadership literature to ascertain the forms of emergence for
which leadership processes have been conceptualized and operationalized in this section. Specifically, we apply the framework
described in Table 3 to indicate those theories that have most frequently been conceptualized using global, compositional, and
compilational forms of emergence, and we apply this distinction across multiple levels ranging from events to organizations. Fig. 1
presents a graphical depiction of the trends over time regarding the form of emergence reflected in leadership theories. As Fig. 1
indicates, each form of emergence has shown an overall increase in terms of representation within the literature, although
compositional processes have not dramatically increased in recent years. This reflects a trend toward increasingly complex
theories of leadership that may overshadow the potential for using relatively simple rules and principles to explain complex
behavior (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2011).
Table 3
Basis for formulation of emergent Unit Level Properties (ULP) by level of analysis.
Levels of
analysis
Global ULP: Descriptive characteristic
of unit does not apply to lower levels.
Compositional ULP: Property emerges from
composition of lower-level unit properties.
Compilational ULP: Property emerges from
compilation of lower-level unit properties.
Event 1. Affective events theory 1. Knowledge structures expanded by
accumulation of facts
1. Conscious understanding emerges from
interaction of different events
2. Adaptive response to events 2. Perfecting skills & abilities by learning
from previous errors
2. Self-complexity increases by self- reflective
processing of emotional events
3. Event-related motivational
processing
Individual 1. Trait theory 1. Global self-efficacy 1. Increased self-complexity via CAPS & hot/cool
networks
2. Chronic self-regulatory processes &
leadership behavioral styles
2. Self-regulation from hierarchically organized
motivational elements
3. Genetic determinants of leadership 3. Effects of default & affective networks on use of
cognitive resources
Dyad 1. Leader–follower relationship quality 1. Development of mutual affective and
cognitive trust from repeated interpersonal
experiences
1. Affective and cognitive trust
2. Affective construal of an interactional partner’s
emotional expressions and behavior
3. Leadership and followership perception due to
implicit leadership or followership schema
activation
Group 1. Group demographic diversity as
resources for leadership complexity
1. Team mental models & team
performance through addition of individual
skills, actions & thoughts
1. Team transactive memory & specialized
group-member functions that require frequent
member-to-member interaction
2. Group affective tone, task knowledge, &
motivation
2. Strong collective identities result in emergent
group processes via cooperation (e.g., team
efficiency)
Organization 1. Punctuated equilibrium (e.g.,
mergers, spinoffs, strategic choices
made by leaders)
1. Attraction–selection–attrition models of
organizational climate
1. Development of organizational ethical culture
2. Theory of organizational structure &
culture
2. Collective values, goals & human
resources
2. Organizational complexity & identity development
Common
thread
among
theory
Stable attributes are important
antecedents to processes at each level
Individuals function independently;
individuals fulfill similar functions.
Outcomes emerge from interactions of different
units; individuals & groups perform different
functions
Notes: Replicated from Lord and Dinh (2012).
44 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Our findings from the application of our categorization scheme to leadership research are summarized further in Tables 4
and 5. The empirical results indicate that leadership theories have been predominantly conceptualized using global and
compilational forms of emergence, whereas prior theoretical work (Lord & Dinh, 2012) also emphasized compositional forms of
emergence. Additionally, we identify the level of analysis that is commonly associated with each theory within each table. It is
important to recognize that different researchers may conceptualize a theory differently and so a specific theoretical category,
such as trait theories of leadership, might be classified as being global for one article but compositional or compilational for
another. In addition, researchers may focus on different levels of analysis for different articles. Nevertheless, there are some clear
trends. First, a significant number of thematic leadership theory categories have been conceptualized using global properties. In
fact, out of the 66 disparate leadership theory categories that had been identified, 29 (approximately 44%) emphasized a global
ULP (see Table 4 for the top 20 global-oriented theories). Interestingly, an overwhelming majority of thematic leadership theory
categories with a global ULP were also conceptualized at the individual, rather than event, dyad, group, or organizational level of
analysis.
Notes: Data collection ended in September of 2012, resulting in a proportionally smaller number
of coded articles. This is represented in the decline observed for 2012.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Number of Articles
Year
Global
Compositional
Compliational
Fig. 1. Trends in form of emergence between the years 2000 and 2012.
Table 4
Percentage of global leadership theories at event (E), individual (I), dyad (D), group (G), and organizational (O) level of analysis.
Theory (percent coded as global) % at each level of analysis
E I DGO
1. Normative decision model (100) 100 0 000
2. Multiple linkage model (100) 0 100 000
3. Inspirational leadership (100) 33 67 000
4. Entrepreneurial (100) 0 50 0 0 50
5. Idiosyncratic leadership theory (100) 0 100 000
6. Leader motive profile theory (100) 0 67 0 0 33
7. Pygmalion effect (86) 0 80 20 0 0
8. Aesthetic leadership (83) 50 50 000
9. Destructive/abusive supervision (80) 5 53 21 5 16
10. Neuro-biological theory (63) 20 70 0 10 0
11. Ideological and pragmatic leadership (58) 29 57 14 0 0
12. Cross-cultural leadership (56) 5 50 9 0 36
13. Self-sacrificing leadership theory (55) 20 80 000
14. Trait (dispositional) theories (52) 11 68 759
15. Behavioral approaches (52) 8 59 8 0 25
16. Leadership reward and punishment behavior (50) 0 60 20 0 20
17. Servant leadership theory (50) 0 60 10 20 10
18. Leadership skills/competence (49) 10 70 0 10 10
19. Public leadership (48) 14 57 0 0 29
20. Political theory of leadership influence (48) 0 72 0 7 21
a
Theories appearing in this table were predominantly conceptualized using global, rather than compositional or compilational forms of emergence. However,
each theory varied with respect to level of analysis used in research and theory. Percentages in bold indicate the level of analysis that was predominantly used for
each theory.
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 45
The literature's emphasis on individual levels is not surprising, as leaders are often understood as having direct influences on
important individual and organizational level outcomes, such as performance (Lord & Dinh, in press). In contrast, thematic
leadership theory categories that emphasize compilational processes are shown in Table 5. Although leadership theories with a
compilational ULP are not often investigated at organizational levels of analysis, they are widely represented at event, individual,
dyad, and group levels of analysis. As Tables 4 and 5 show, theories with a global or compilational ULP differ with regard to the
underlying process used to explain a particular leadership phenomena. Whereas theories with a global ULP are often understood
at a single level of analysis as processes are considered to be stable (see Table 4), theories with a compilational ULP are more likely
multi-level, as processes are viewed to be dynamic and fluid across time (see Table 5). Indeed several theories in Table 5 are
frequently conceptualized at many different levels of analysis, such as complexity theory, integrative leadership, and leading for
creativity and innovation.
Rather than describe each theory in Tables 4 and 5, we show how describing the underlying processes associated with the
form of emergence for a thematic theory category can help us understand how certain leadership processes emerge. We also use a
finer grained analysis, which separates quantitative and theoretical works in Table 6. Often this distinction produced surprising
results. For example, 60% of the quantitative studies of trait theories reflect global conceptualizations of leadership traits, whereas
61% of the analogous theoretical articles reflected compilational approaches to leadership traits. Thus, quantitative approaches
seemed to be a bit less sophisticated than theoretical analysis with respect to trait theory. Further, this quantitative/theoretical
difference is common in Table 6, with the percentage of theoretical articles reflecting compilational aggregation processes being
higher than the corresponding percentage for quantitative articles for every comparison in Table 6. Attention to potential
differences in how theoretical domains are conceptualized and investigated can help ascertain whether the methods used to test
theory are appropriate for examining underlying processes.
3.1.1. Thematic leadership theory categories reflecting global forms of emergence
A vast majority of thematic leadership theory categories identified from Gardner et al. (2010) emphasize global forms of
emergence, which also concentrate primarily on the individual level of analysis. Importantly, these theories describe leadership
phenomena as using stable processes, such as dispositional factors to predict leadership outcomes. As shown in Table 4, they
include trait theories, research on leadership skills and competence, and leadership style (e.g., transformational/transactional
leadership, destructive leadership and ethical leadership), which identify specific leadership traits, behaviors, and characteristics
that generally predict leader perceptions and effectiveness across many different contexts. Dispositional factors may be
emphasized in other theories, such as entrepreneurial and cross-cultural leadership when they focus on individual factors (e.g.,
intelligence) to influence interpersonal outcomes. This perspective suggests that in order for leaders to influence individual and
organizational outcomes, they must possess, or can influence, many of the characteristics described by these theories.
Consequently, thematic theory categories with a global ULP are descriptive and offer parsimonious explanations of leadership
(Lord & Dinh, 2012); however, they offer limited insight into the processes by which leaders affect organizational outcomes and
they create difficulties for understanding how different thematic theory categories relate or affect one another.
Table 5
Percentage of compilational leadership theories at event (E), individual (I), dyad (D), group (G), and organizational (O) level of analysis.
Theory (percent coded as compilational) % at each level of analysisa
E I DGO
Adaptive leadership (100) 27 27 10 18 18
Outstanding leadership (100) 100 0000
Complexity theory of leadership (90) 19 28 16 23 14
E-leadership (87) 29 14 14 43 0
Leadership flexibility (86) 16 33 17 17 17
Leadership for organizational learning and knowledge (82) 0 33 23 33 11
Vertical dyad linkage (VDL) (78) 18 14 23 27 18
Cognitive resource theory (68) 17 33 17 33 0
Integrative leadership (67) 6 6 19 38 31
Situational leadership theory (63) 10 30 20 30 10
Implicit leadership (62) 19 41 22 18 0
Path-goal theory (61) 23 15 8 31 23
Attribution theories of leadership (60) 12 44 20 24 0
Leading for creativity and innovation (60) 10 27 12 32 19
Decision process theory (60) 34 0 0 33 33
Leader error and recovery (59) 0 34 0 33 33
Participative, shared leadership (58) 10 22 17 44 7
Followership theory (57) 22 23 32 19 4
Life cycle theory (57) 13 32 26 26 3
Identity and identification process theory (55) 50 25 0 25 0
a Percentages in bold indicate the level of analysis that was predominantly used for each theory.
46 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Table 6
Form of emergence implied by theoretical and quantitative leadership research in top-tier publications, 2000–2012.
Established Leadership Theories Type of research
Quantitative only % Theoretical only %
Dispositional (Trait) Theories
Trait (dispositional) theories – traits & attributes Global 60 Compilational 61
Leadership skills/competence Global 61 Compilational 58
Leader motive profile theory Global 100 Global 100
Behavioral Theories
Behavioral approaches (OSU/LBDQ) Global 63 Compilational 100
Participative, shared leadership, delegation and empowerment Compilational 51 Compilational 94
Leadership reward and punishment behavior Global 50 - -
Contingency Theories
Leadership for organizational learning and knowledge Compilational 67 Compilational 90
Contingency leadership theory Compilational 50 Compilational 57
Situational leadership theory Global 75 Compilational 82
Path-goal theory Global 50 Compilational 62
Cognitive resource theory Global 50 Compilational 100
Normative decision model – – Global 100
Life cycle theory Compilational 100 Global 100
Leadership substitute theory Global 86 – –
Social Exchange (Relational) Leadership Theories
Vertical dyad linkage (VDL) Compilational 75 Compilational 100
Leader–member exchange (LMX) Global 52 Compilational 54
Relational leadership Global 44 Compilational 69
Individualized leadership – ––
Leadership and Informational Processing
Leader and follower cognitions Global 46 Compilational 65
Implicit leadership Global 47 Compilational 82
Information processing and decision making theories of leadership Global 47 Compilational 82
Attribution theories of leadership Compilational 54 Compilational 72
Neo-Charismatic Theories
Transformational leadership theory Global 50 Compilational 60
Transactional leadership Global 100 Compilational 81
Charismatic leadership Global 52 Compilational 64
Inspirational leadership Global 100 Global 100
Self-sacrificial leadership theorya Global 62 Compilational 100
Ideological and pragmatic leadership Global 67 – –
Power and Influence Theories
Power and influence of leadership Global 69 – –
Political theory of leadership/influence tactics of leadership Global 53 Global 50
Follower-Centric Theories
Followership theory Global 53 Compilational 77
Romance of leadership Compilational 50 – –
Idiosyncratic leadership theory – – Global 100
Leadership of Diverse and Cross-Cultural Relationships
Leadership and diversity [gender (dis)advantages] Global 63 Compilational 75
Cross-cultural leadership (GLOBE) Global 61 Compilational 70
Team Leadership
Leadership in teams and decision groups Compilational 42 Compilational 73
Strategic Leadership
Strategic/top executive leadership Global 53 Compilational 73
Upper echelons theory Global 51 Compilational 86
Public leadership (e.g., presidential, professional politician) Global 75 Global 50
Ethical/Moral Leadership Theories
Authentic leadership Global 22 Compilational 54
Ethical leadership theory Global 38 Global 58
Servant leadership theory Global 64 Compilational 50
Spiritual leadership theory Compilational 33 Compilational 48
Leadership Emergence and Development
Leadership development Global 43 Compilational 59
Leadership emergence Global 61 Compilational 80
Identity-Based Perspectives
Social identity theory of leadership Global 41 Compilational 61
Identity and identification process theory of leadership Compilational 43 Compilational 68
Contextual, Complexity, and Systems Perspectives of Leadership
Contextual theory of leadership Global 46 Compilational 47
Complexity theory of leadership Compilational 86 Compilational 94
Social network approaches to leadership Global 43 Compilational 67
Integrative leadership Global 100 Compilational 69
Adaptive leadership – – Compilational 100
Multiple linkage modelb Global 100 – –
(continued on next page)
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 47
3.1.2. Thematic leadership theory categories reflecting compositional forms of emergence
Theories with a compositional ULP are those that emphasize the aggregation of units that preserve the same lower level aspect
or quality at higher levels of analysis. Although we coded compositional forms of emergence, and found 159 leadership articles
emphasizing this form of emergence, there were no levels of analysis or specific thematic categories for which this form of
emergence predominated. Consequently, it seemed inappropriate to classify any theory as compositional when either global or
compilational forms of emergence were more commonly discussed. For this reason, we do not present a separate table for
leadership theories with a compositional ULP, although we do discuss compositional forms of emergence at various points in this
review, frequently contrasting it to compilational forms of emergence. We also discuss theoretical and methodological
implications associated with the general absence of compositional forms of emergence in Section 4.2.
3.1.3. Thematic leadership theory categories reflecting compilational forms of emergence
An examination of Table 5 reveals that theories with a compilational ULP are well represented at each level of analysis. This is
not surprising, given that a key characteristic of compilational forms of emergence is that phenomena at one level of analysis
affects another level of analysis in such a way that a fundamental change in the nature of the phenomenon occurs (Lord & Dinh,
2012). In this way, leadership theories with a compilational ULP are inherently multi-level and reflect dynamic system processes.
It is also informative to see that attention has been fairly evenly divided across the various levels of analysis among thematic
theory categories with a compilational ULP.
An examination of Table 5 indicates that many thematic theory categories, including adaptive leadership (Hannah, Uhl-Bien,
et al., 2009), complexity theory of leadership (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2002), e-leadership (including leadership within virtual
teams; Avolio, Kahai & Dodge, 2001; Purvanova & Bono, 2009), and leadership for organizational learning and knowledge
(Berson, Nemanich, Waldman, Galvin, & Keller, 2006) address interactive compilational processes that operate across multiple
levels of analysis. Therefore, thematic theory categories that adopt a compilational perspective on emergence go much further
than traditional perspectives by acknowledging the complexity that realistically defines modern organizations.
To illustrate the types of insights that accrue from adopting compilational perspectives, we focus on two streams of research
that exemplify these approaches: the complexity theory of leadership (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2002), and leadership for
organizational learning and knowledge (Berson et al., 2006; Vera & Crossan, 2004). With respect to the complexity theory of
leadership, the focus on emergent processes within complex systems (Lichtenstein & Plowman, 2009; Plowman et al., 2007) casts
the leader's role as one of enabling rather controlling the organization's future. Indeed, a central assertion of complexity
leadership approaches is “that leadership is multi-level, processual, contextual and interactive” (Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009, p. 631),
reflecting compilational rather than compositional types of processes. Moreover, Uhl-Bien and Marion assert that event-level
activities produce emergent innovations and learning that are introduced into complex adaptive systems and become entangled
with formal structures. Within such a system, leaders perform administrative, enabling, and adaptive functions to facilitate the
emergence of organizational processes that lead to goal attainment. However, the effects of leadership are never certain as they
are continuously affected by evolving social–environmental constraints (Lord, Dinh, & Hoffman, in review). Thus, micro- and
macro-level factors converge to impact leadership, and this presents a more complex view that is ignored by more simplistic
perspectives.
Table 6 (continued)
Established Leadership Theories Type of research
Quantitative only % Theoretical only %
Leading for Creativity, Innovation, and Change
Leading for creativity and innovation Compilational 54 Compilational 63
Leading change in organizations/change Compilational 46 Compilational 100
Other Established Theories
Pygmalian effect Global 80 Global 100
Leadership flexibility – – Compilational 86
Emotions and leadership Compilational 48 Compositional 61
Destructive/abusive supervision/toxic leadership Global 67 Global 50
Neuro-biological approaches Global 73 Global 67
E-leadership (effects of task, technology, distance and virtuality) Compilational 75 Compilational 100
Aesthetic leadership – – Global 80
Leader error and recovery Global 100 Compilational 100
Decision process theory Global 40 – –
Entrepreneurial leadership Global 100 Global 80
Outstanding leadership Compositional 100 – –
Cumulative Percentages Across Theories
Global 66 24
Compositional 7 2
Compilational 27 74
Notes: Percentages were computed for quantitative and theoretical articles separately. Indicated form of emergence was predominantly used for quantitative and
theoretical articles. Dashes indicate that no articles were identified for a theory. OSU = Ohio State University; LBDQ = leader behavior description questionnaire. a Indicates an emergent theory classified under a larger group of established perspectives. b Indicates an established theory classified under a larger grouping of nascent perspectives.
48 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Compilational forms of emergence are also evident in thematic leadership theory categories that describe the emergence of
organizational learning (Berson et al., 2006). This is because organizational learning can occur compilationally when it results from
interactive multi-level processes. For example, Hannah and Lester (2009, p. 34) advance a multilevel model that proposes
“organizational learning is an interdependent system where effective leaders enact intervention strategies at the individual (micro),
network (meso), and systems (macro) levels.” Their central argument is that leaders support organizational learning by establishing
the structure and conditions for learning to accrue, while shielding organizational members from interference with creative
processes. In the process of enhancing the developmental readiness of followers, leaders can raise their follower's motivation, ability
to learn, and refine their mental models. Leaders also engage in system-level activities to facilitate the diffusion and
institutionalization of knowledge across the organization. However, the direct effects of leadership on organizational learning are
complicated by additional factors, such as the influence of followers and social–relational networks. In fact, followers' positioning
within networks allow certain individuals to catalyze information and influence resource diffusion within and across social networks
(Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006), and this affects collective learning. Additionally, organizational learning may be affected by temporal
factors, such as employee absenteeism and social network reconfigurations, which impact the types of resources that are available to
organizational members (Smith-Jentsch, Kraiger, Cannon-Bowers, & Salas, 2009; Zaheer & Soda, 2009).
3.2. Strengths and limitations of theory with global, compositional, and compilational ULPs
Our review of the leadership literature shows that leadership theories can be classified by form of emergence and by level of
analysis. In this framework, attention to process is important and reveals possible limitations of a theory based on how processes
are conceptualized. As we have described, theories with a global ULP are descriptive and parsimonious. However, by emphasizing
stable aspects of leaders and organizational units, such theories may oversimplify and romanticize leadership, and they may draw
too heavily on naïve, common-sense understanding of processes that are encoded into natural language (Uher, 2013).
Typically, theory provides a foundation that guides research methods. Therefore, another issue with focusing on global
processes is that it may perpetuate methods that stress stability in phenomenon by aggregating over many events. Indeed, the use
of cross-sectional methods that include retrospective questionnaires and field surveys, was common in empirical works across
top-tier journal outlets, making up roughly 62% (334 cases) of the coded research (see Table 7). Such operationalization can also
introduce a variety of rating errors (e.g., primacy or recency effects, an overemphasis on salient behaviors and outcomes, halo or
liking effects, etc.; Brown & Keeping, 2005; Shondrick, Dinh, & Lord, 2010), as well as create difficulty for understanding how
different theoretical domains relate or affect one another. In fact, one common problem is that theories with a global ULP ignore
event-level processes that provide insight into the observed variability that occurs in leader and follower decision-making and
behavior (e.g., Johnson, Venus, Lanaj, Mao, & Chang, 2012; Kuppens, Oravecz, & Tuerlinckx, 2010). Indeed, research using
experience sampling has shown that people experience a wide range of affective experiences and trait behaviors during a normal
day (Fleeson, 2001; Kuppens et al., 2010). Also, seemingly stable intrapersonal constructs, such as semantic schemas for personal
and team work routines (Dionysiou & Tsoukas, 2013) and self-perceptions (Slotter, Lucas, Jakubiak, & Lasslet, 2013), can change
in response to interpersonal social cues, thereby affecting subsequent decisions and choices. At higher levels, event-level
variability is also reflected in interpersonal team dynamics (Crawford & LePine, 2013; Smith-Jentsch et al., 2009), group processes
(Klein, Ziegert, Knight, & Xiao, 2006; Morgeson, 2005), and organizational systems (Gulati, Sytch, & Tatarynowicz, 2012; MacKay
Table 7
Summary of methodology for quantitative articles.
Frequency %
Time
Cross-sectional 334 62
Cross-sectional w/CMV time lag 37 7
Longitudinal 206 38
Data source
Field survey (primary data) 365 67
Field survey (secondary data) 122 23
Laboratory experiment 98 18
Content analysis 74 14
Review (non-meta-analytical review) 53 10
Field experiment 23 4
Meta-analysis (quantitative review) 15 3
Sample survey 9 2
Observation 6 1
Diary study/experiential sampling 5 b1
Experimental simulation 5 b1
Computer simulation 4 b1
Judgment task 3 b1
Methodology study (e.g., psychometric methods) 3 b1
Notes: 1. The total frequency exceeds the number of quantitative articles because articles often employ multiple studies and data
sources.
2. Percentage is calculated by using the total quantitative article count, 542, as denominator.
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 49
& Chia, 2013) that require leaders (and followers) to continuously adjust to environmental uncertainty. Hence, narrowly focusing
on global forms of emergence runs the risk of codifying lay theories that overemphasize the stability in processes by using
language that masks the dynamics of organizational phenomenon.
Specific to individual global perspectives of leadership, which dominated the literature, these types of theories assume away
both the influence of the event-level and contextual influences to produce a more simplistic, outcome-oriented perspective of
leadership. By positing direct relationships between leadership and outcomes, such as performance (i.e., L → P), these
leader-centric theories overemphasize the role of leaders by attributing the success and failure of organizations to the agency of
specific individuals as depicted by fundamental attribution theories (Kelley, 1973).
In contrast, theories that conceptualize leadership processes as compilational are better able to address the nonlinear dynamics
that characterize organizational phenomenon through which higher-level outcomes emerge from the cyclical interaction of
lower-level units. In fact, theories with a compilational ULP are inherently multi-level and evolve over many temporal orders. As such,
leadership theories with this ULP advance an understanding of leadership that is much more consonant with the complexity that
defines real people and organizations by considering the importance of time (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008; Langley et al., 2013; Sonnentag,
2012), the interactive nature of social–relational systems (Kahn, Barton, & Fellows, 2013; Valcea, Hamdani, Buckley, & Novicevic,
2011), and how environmental contexts shape leadership (MacKay & Chia, 2013). This perspective invites scholars to consider how
seemingly independent processes may operate together to affect leadership and organizational outcomes, and so it offers a way to
unify multiple thematic theory categories by encouraging the development of more integrative leadership theory.
Critically, leadership theories that stress compilational forms of emergence help scholars to see leadership as operating with
social–relational systems that define modern organizations (Kahn et al., 2013). Within this context, leaders may achieve their
goals indirectly through followers (Lord & Dinh, in press), and followers may have reciprocal effects on leadership and leader
development (Day et al., 2009; Hoyt, Price, & Poatsy, 2013). Additionally, because the influence of leadership may require weeks,
months, to years to fully manifest, it cannot be evaluated within short spans of time (Jaques, 1990; Kaiser et al., 2008). Hence,
theories with a compilational ULP invite scholars to step outside of leader-centric perspectives by considering the impact that
simultaneously occurring processes operating at higher and lower levels, such as followership (Valcea et al., 2011; Van
Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & Hogg, 2004) and group and system dynamics (Crawford & LePine, 2013; Gulati et
al., 2012; Polyhart & Moliterno, 2011), have on the emergence of leadership phenomena.
Interestingly, research that emphasizes compilational processes is more common to theoretical rather than quantitative
articles, which concentrate on global processes. Theoretical and quantitative articles were compared separately for each thematic
theory category in Table 6. This table shows that approximately 66% of theories examined by quantitative research emphasized
global forms of emergence, whereas 27% focused on compilational processes. In contrast, 74% of purely theoretical research
stressed compilational forms of emergence, while 24% focused on global processes. These findings illustrate a fundamental
difference between quantitative and theoretical articles with respect to their attention to processes and outcomes. Because
quantitative research stresses global, stable processes, this type of research may be more focused on understanding outcomes.
However, theoretical articles are more process oriented as they explicate how underlying processes contribute to emergent
leadership phenomena. We discuss this implication in greater detail in Section 4.1.
We should also comment on the tendency for compositional forms of emergence to be underemphasized in the literature.
They were not the predominant focus for any thematic theory category, with the percentage of compositional theories ranging
between 0 and 40% across all theories. However, this result does not mean that compositional theories are unimportant. They still
characterized 159 articles in the leadership field and help describe how complex multi-level processes unfold over time
(Ashforth, Rogers, & Corley, 2011). In addition, compositional processes were part of the data we used to calculate the
percentages in Tables 4–6.
We suspect that the under-emphasis of compositional theories reflects a general bias in the leadership literature to focus on
issues with closer relations to compilational forms of emergence such as adaptation and change, which are associated with the
most popular research stream, transformational leadership theory. In contrast, efficiency issues, that may be more closely related
to transactional leadership theories and may be more reflective of compositional forms of emergence, tend to be underemphasized
in the leadership literature. It should also be recognized that each article reflects the authors' own interpretation of theory and
processes, and there may be a bias toward noticing and discussing compilational forms of emergence rather than compositional
forms of emergence, even though many organizational phenomena have both compositional and compilational aspects.
There was also another curious aspect related to compositional forms of emergence that is discussed in the following section.
Specifically, many empirical articles started with theory that emphasizes compilational forms of emergence, but treated the data
as having a global or compositional ULP where individual responses and variables were aggregated to a group level or were
combined linearly using multiple regression without concern for potential interactions among variables. Yet, dynamic interactive
processes are a fundamental feature of compilational theories. Consequently, in many instances we found that theory and
measurement or analytic procedures were mismatched.
3.3. Form of emergence emphasized by journal and emergence match/mismatch
After describing the forms of emergence that have been predominantly implied by theory, we examined whether certain
forms of emergence were emphasized across the 10 journals as shown in Table 8. This table shows that of the three forms of
emergence, global processes were commonly emphasized in half of the journals. However, compilational processes were
investigated at a frequency that equally or exceeded global processes in the remaining journals. In addition, compositional
50 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
processes were not commonly addressed by theory and research in any of the 10 top-tier publication outlets. Interestingly, the
form of emergence emphasized by a journal can reflect the journal's focus or interest. For example, nearly half of the research
published in Personnel Psychology investigated leadership phenomenon as global processes, which may reflect the journal's
emphasis on individual dispositions, strategy, and behaviors. In contrast, 58% of the research published in American Psychologist
emphasized compilational processes, and this may be due to the fact that articles in this journal are theoretical, rather than
quantitative, and examined dynamic multilevel processes.
We also examined the types of leadership theories that had the highest percentage of studies with matches or mismatches in
terms of correspondence between form of emergence/level of analysis and methods within a specific study. As described
previously, matches occurred when processes implied by the theory of an article were investigated at the theorized level of
analysis and used methods that appropriately captured the process described by theory. Using a 25% cut-off score, we identified
those theories with the highest mismatches in Table 9. This table shows that mismatches were common in research investigating
certain theories, and especially for the leading for the creativity and innovation thematic category. In fact, the use of
cross-sectional field surveys that aggregated within-person processes was common to research investigating this leadership
phenomenon (57%), which may be inappropriate for investigating dynamic intrapersonal and interpersonal processes responsible
for creative insight as implied by theory. Mismatches also occurred in research on relational leadership, ethical leadership, and
transformational leadership theory that predominantly used cross-sectional field surveys at one point in time (41–65%) to
understand leadership phenomena that likely involve multi-level compilational processes (Crawford & LePine, 2013;
Schaubroeck et al., 2012).
4. General discussion
Our critical review of the leadership literature that included LQ and nine other top-tier publication outlets demonstrates the
continued growth and interest in leadership theory and research in the new millennium. In this review, we have identified 752
articles that focused on the topic of leadership, which include and extend beyond the 353 articles that had been identified by
Gardner et al. (2010) in LQ alone between the years 2000–2009. Moving forward, leadership scholars and practitioners now face
Table 8
Frequency (instance) and percentage of form of emergence emphasized by journal.
Journal Form of emergence
Global % Compositional % Compilational %
Academy of Management Journal 31 61 8 16 12 23
Academy of Management Review 4 44 1 11 4 44
Administrative Science Quarterly 14 36 10 26 15 38
American Psychologist 4 33 1 8 7 58
Journal of Applied Psychology 61 45 25 19 49 36
Journal of Management 9 29 4 13 18 58
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 18 45 6 15 16 40
Organizational Science 1 10 3 30 6 60
Personnel Psychology 12 50 4 17 8 33
The Leadership Quarterly 244 46 62 12 219 42
Note: Articles can have more than one form of emergence. As such, data reflects the number of instances a form of emergence was implied.
Table 9
Frequency and percentage of match/mis-matched quantitative research to form of emergence within established theories.
Theory Emergence-LoA/theory (mis)-match
Match Mis-match % mis-match
Behavioral approaches (OSU/LBDQ) 9 3 25%
Leadership skills/competence 15 7 32%
Transformational leadership theory 80 32 29%
Transactional leadership 17 8 32%
Authentic leadership 8 4 33%
Contextual theory of leadership 18 9 33%
Emotions and leadership 27 9 25%
Ethical leadership theory 8 5 38%
Leader and follower cognitions 51 18 26%
Leadership in teams and decision groups 64 22 26%
Leading change in organizations/change 12 5 29%
Leading for creativity and innovation 13 13 50%
Relational leadership 10 6 37%
Social identity theory of leadership 13 6 32%
Note: OSU = Ohio State University; LBDQ = leader behavior description questionnaire.
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 51
the challenge of integrating this diverse body of knowledge to explain how leaders shape organizational processes and systems. In
this article, we argued that this challenge can be approached by focusing on the forms of emergence that influence, or are
influenced by, leaders. Specifically, by classifying leadership theory into broad thematic categories using a framework advanced
by Gardner et al. (2010), with a process framework proposed by Lord and Dinh (2012), we provide a structure that organizes the
leadership literature based on how leadership phenomena occur at different levels of analysis can combine to influence the
emergence of phenomena at higher or lower levels.
Although there are many other useful frameworks that can organize leadership theory (e.g., Hernandez, Eberly, Avolio, &
Johnson, 2011), this framework stands apart by emphasizing the continuity among disparate leadership phenomenon by focusing
on process. In doing so, this framework can facilitate the development of more integrative research agendas that explore how
leaders, followers, and larger social systems jointly influence the unfolding of organizational events. In many instances, it is the
combined effects of intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that produce emergent phenomena in organizations. For example,
cognitions, emotions, and aspects of physical embodiment simultaneously operate within individuals (Damasio, 1994; Dinh, Lord,
& Hoffman, 2013) to produce emergent phenomenon such as decisions. Similarly, social obligations and contractual norms
operating at more interpersonal levels (Crawford & LePine, 2013; Kahn et al., 2013) work together to influence the emergence of
collective resources, knowledge, and skill that constrain an organization's adaptive potential (Gulati et al., 2012; Zaheer & Soda,
2009). However, this dynamic systems perspective is largely unexplored in leadership theory and research that tends to be
cross-sectional rather than longitudinal, as shown in Table 7. Yet skilled practitioners must address these intertwined processes
when they are leading.
In addition, this framework has an advantage over traditional narrative reviews of the literature in that it provides an empirically
based approach that groups theories using a particular form of emergence. This helps to identify a common process-related thread
linking otherwise divergent theories. For example, a common thread among global theories is that they emphasize stable processes
that exist at the level of wholes. That is, theories such as inspirational leadership, leader motive profile theory, aesthetic leadership,
neuro-biological theory, and destructive/abusive leadership are those that emphasize enduring aspects of individuals. Perhaps
leadership theory could be advanced by consolidating or integrating such theories. Other global theories, although framed as wholes
in terms of the level of analysis, seem to reflect differences in contexts (entrepreneurial, cross-cultural leadership, public leadership,
political influence), even though they are conceptualized at the individual wholes level.
In contrast, theories that adopt a parts perspective and describe emergent processes may differ depending on whether they
emphasize compositional or compilational forms of emergence. For example, theories that emphasize compositional processes
share a common thread that focuses at the unit level (e.g., events, individuals, dyads, groups, organizations) and assumes that
each unit fulfills a similar function across relevant levels. Although this approach reflects a parts perspective, the fundamental
characteristics of units do not change as processes emerge to higher relevant levels. Therefore, it suggests that theories operating
at different levels use the same functional processes. For instance, theories focusing on transformational leadership theory,
leadership in teams and decision groups, and top management team leadership, sometimes emphasize compositional forms of
emergence.
Finally, theories that emphasize compilational processes are similar in that they focus on how processes occurring at one level of
analysis can create an emergent construct at the next highest level. These theories show considerable heterogeneity in terms of the
level at which they are formulated. For example, complexity theories are fairly evenly distributed across events, individual, dyad,
group, and organizational levels of analysis, but at each level they imply that lower level constructs interact (across time or across
units) as they are combined to create higher-level constructs. That is, events may interact as they are remembered and combined to
create leadership skills or identities, and individual contributions interact as they are combined to create group products. Importantly,
this form of emergence emphasizes the cross-level aspects of leadership, and it suggests that the leadership processes that span
multiple levels may operate in a different fashion for lower and higher level constructs even though they may not explicitly address
such differences. A more careful specification as to how leadership influences such integrative processes might help advance theories
such as adaptive leadership, outstanding leadership, and complexity leadership theories.
Organizing leadership research by the nature of emergent processes also signifies the need to understand how leadership
occurs within social systems that continually change. Importantly, emergent processes are not bounded within a particular level
of analysis as our framework has shown. Additionally, aggregation processes take time, such that processes can have cascading
effects that extend into the future (Wickham & Knee, 2013). These findings have important implications for advancing leadership
theory in the new millennium in a manner that is both context and time sensitive. To provide a guide for the development of
future research, we discuss several notable findings that have been obtained from this extensive review.
4.1. Implications for theory and practice
We argue that advancing leadership theory and research will require that scholars critically examine several foundational
assumptions that have defined leadership and organizational research in the last century. As our review has shown, global
processes, which emphasize stability in seemingly stable structures (e.g., personality, semantic knowledge, social networks)
provided the thrust for much of the theory. As a reviewer astutely noted, the emphasis on global processes may have been
perpetuated by early authoritative reviews in the literature (e.g., Mann, 1959), thereby blocking efforts to reconceptualize
leadership theory to consider more dynamic processes. However, changing perspectives in the recent literature have shown that
changing contexts (Ryan, Haslam, Hersby, & Bongiorno, 2011; Sy, Shore, Strauss, Shore, Tram, et al., 2010), and the temporal
dynamics that occur within individuals (e.g., Kuppens et al., 2010; Read et al., 2010), teams (Crawford & LePine, 2013;
52 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Smith-Jentsch et al., 2009), and social systems (Zaheer & Soda, 2009) vary over time. This perspective differs from leader-centric
approaches that instill a false sense of certainty for understanding how leaders affect the performance of individuals and
organizations. At a minimum, this perspective suggests that leadership theory that is built on retrospective constructs and data
tends to overestimate the direct effects of leadership. In addition, it raises concerns related to the utility of retrospective measures
that use past judgments or events to predict future outcomes if the underlying goal is to understand how leaders influence (or are
influenced) by environments that are complex, variable, and continually changing (Langley et al., 2013; MacKay & Chia, 2013;
Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009). Instead, this perspective highlights the need for theory and research to consider how the dynamics
among multi-level processes lead to outcomes of interest by imposing constraints on the manifestation of leadership. Here a
critical issue is that leadership, particularly top-level leadership, may be a relatively distal cause of organizational adaptation or
change as a leader's influence is affected by intermediate social–environmental processes. As such, future leadership theory needs
to better link aspects of leadership with intervening processes that ultimately create outcomes of interest, and it needs to do this
in a manner that does not confuse leadership perceptions with the effects of leaders or unit performance (Kaiser et al., 2008; Lord
& Dinh, in press).
Organizational processes also operate on multiple levels and time scales (i.e., some occurring faster or slower than others),
making it difficult for leaders to foresee how processes may interact and evolve over varying periods of time (Kaiser et al., 2008).
Further, leadership may be qualitatively different at different organizational levels, requiring multiple ways to think about
leadership processes. As research on leadership and teams has shown, the duration of leadership processes and the temporal
ordering for when and how leadership occurs affects leadership effectiveness (DeChurch et al., 2011; Morgeson, 2005).
Organizational scholars have also noted that individual, group, and organizational processes unfold differently across time spans
of seconds, minutes, days, months, and years (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008; Langley et al., 2013; Sonnentag, 2012). In fact, research on
self-managing teams (Klein et al., 2006; Morgeson, 2005) and organizational change (Klarner & Raisch, 2013) have identified
distinct temporal phases, each with specific kinds of leadership interventions and behaviors that would help optimize group and
organizational performance outcomes. For example, leaders can control the pace and speed at which organizational processes
occur; the synchrony among similar or different work activities (entrainment); worker's temporal focus (attending to the past,
present, and future); and the duration of work processes (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008; Sonnentag, 2012). In addition, leaders can
influence others instantaneously (within seconds) through processes of emotional contagion (Bono & Ilies, 2006; Sy, C té, &
Saavedra, 2005), or after a period of months or years as leadership actions cascade downwards in hierarchically structured
organizations (Jaques, 1990). Hence, continuously evolving intra- and interpersonal processes can exhibit non-linear change
when the consequences of leadership (or external processes) are combined over time (MacKay & Chia, 2013; Plowman et al.,
2007). This perspective presents a critical examination of cross-situational methods for investigating leadership, and it suggests
that attention to time and level of analysis are needed for the development of compositional and compilational leadership theory.
4.2. Advances in methodological approaches
Attention to process is important as it affects how leadership is researched. For instance, conceptualizing leadership phenomenon
as reflecting stable, global processes invites the use of methods (e.g., questionnaires, surveys) that are event non-specific as measures
aggregate within person and across different contexts and situations. While the use of retrospective questionnaires and surveys offer
a summary evaluation of leadership outcomes, these types of measures also overlook the significance of dynamic event-level
processes that create the uncertainty and variability that characterize leadership behavior and organizational phenomenon (Dinh &
Lord, 2012; MacKay & Chia, 2013; Plowman et al., 2007). As findings from our review had shown (Table 6), there is an important
disconnect between quantitative and theoretical research. Quantitative research typically conceptualizes leadership processes
globally and so investigates leadership cross-situationally and within a single level of analysis. However, theoretical frameworks more
often advance compilational forms of emergence that consider how different leadership phenomenon evolve as a result of dynamic
interactive social processes that span multiple levels of analysis. Hence, quantitative research frequently tests leadership
phenomenon in a piece-meal fashion, and it often does so without attention to the importance of temporal ordering or the effect
that time has on leadership and organizations (Lord et al., 2013; Langley et al., 2013; Sonnentag, 2012).
We also suspect that this issue reflects the way science progresses, such that the pace at which theory and methodological
approaches are developed can occur asynchronously depending on the perspectives and technology that are available at the time.
But it also likely that for most researchers, taken-for-granted methodological approaches reflecting common practices receives far
less scrutiny than the theoretical issues guiding hypotheses and interpretations of results. We should stress, however, that there
can be substantial gains from adopting methods that better align with theory. For example, categorization theories of leadership
perception were developed in the 1980s (Lord, Foti, & De Vader, 1984) and posited that perceivers responded to patterns of
characteristics, yet it took 15 years to empirically investigate the effects of actual patterns (Smith & Foti, 1998). Recent research
shows that including patterns increased the ability to predict leadership perception from an R2 of .21 to an R2 of .38 (Foti &
Hauenstein, 2007). As we described, discrepancies between theory and methods have also occurred in several areas of research
such as leading for creativity and innovation. Thus, we would encourage researchers to think more carefully about whether their
methodological approach adequately reflects underlying theory and to explore alternative methodological approaches.
Table 6 also shows that very few quantitative and theoretical articles were characterized with a compositional ULP, which describe
processes that emerge isomorphically from lower to higher organizational levels (e.g., the emergence of shared team mental models
from individual procedural knowledge; see Table 3). However, the absence of compositional forms of emergence is perhaps
unsurprising given that isomorphic forms of aggregation occur gradually over time. For example, the emergence of unethical
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 53
organizational climates from the actions of “bad apples” (Ashforth, Gioia, Robinson, & Treviño 2008) may take months and years to
emerge, where isomorphic changes from individual to group to organizational level practices appear gradually, and thereby, are
imperceptible to observers (Gino & Bazerman, 2009). Similarly, the emergence of organizational climates and cultures may involve
compositional processes that emerge through socialization processes (Morrison, 2002), repeated enactment of leadership behaviors
(Dragoni, 2005), collective sensemaking (Balogun & Johnson, 2004), and the sharing of stories and narratives within larger social
networks (Zohar & Tenne-Gazit, 2008). As these examples show, compositional processes require time and may not be easily
captured by research that ignores the longitudinal, multi-level processes that are inherent within leadership.
In light of these findings, efforts to advance leadership theory and research by moving from global to compositional and
compilational perspectives will require methodological approaches that enable the testing of dynamic processes that span
multiple levels of analysis and over different periods of time. As Weinhardt and Vancouver (2012) suggest, one viable approach to
understanding dynamic multi-level processes associated with leadership and organizational systems is to use computational
modeling, which are mathematical models that can be specified to simulate the evolution of complex, non-linear systems.
Computational models have been employed to understand how interactive processes among intrapersonal variables affect the
dynamics of person construal (Freeman & Ambady, 2011), personality (Read et al., 2010), and leadership perception (Dinh & Lord,
2013). Computational modeling has also been used to investigate the emergence of leadership learning and development (Black,
Oliver, Howell, & King, 2006) and a leader's role in facilitating team dynamics (Dionne & Dionne, 2008; Dionne, Sayama, Hao, &
Bush, 2010). Because computational modeling can simulate the changing dynamics among simultaneously occurring processes in
real time, it can account for the uncertainty that characterizes real organizational systems (MacKay & Chia, 2013), and thereby,
explain how leadership processes and contexts interact to create unintended consequences in the present and future (Lord et al.,
in review). In this way, computational modeling offers a means to incorporate context into leadership theory and its analytical
capacities can advance findings offered by event-level methodological approaches and more typical statistical analyses.
Additionally, the use event-level methodologies (e.g., Fleeson, 2001; see also Dinh & Lord, 2012; Morgeson, 2005) and
network analysis (e.g., Balkundi et al., 2011; Fowler & Christakis, 2008; Zohar & Tenne-Gazit, 2008) can offer additional
technologies for understanding dynamic individual and group processes. In fact, by sampling specific points in time, scholars can
clarify how specific contexts, events, and processes that occur internally (e.g., emotions, embodiment) and interpersonally (e.g.,
emotional contagion) impact how leadership relates to phenomena like leader flexibility (Lord et al., 2011), leader perception and
influence (Giessner & Schubert, 2007; Sy et al., 2005, 2010), and performance in dynamic team and organizational contexts
(Crawford & LePine, 2013; Klein et al., 2006; Plowman et al., 2007). Examining event-level processes may help separate
leadership performance and leadership perception processes, which have heretofore been confounded in much leadership
research (Kaiser et al., 2008). Although these methodological approaches depend on measures that are assessed explicitly or
reflectively, recent leadership research has employed implicit measures that capture processes occurring automatically, operating
below the level of conscious awareness (e.g., Johnson & Lord, 2010; Leavitt, Reynolds, Barnes, Schilpzand, & Hannah, 2012;
Randolph-Seng & Gardner, 2013). Importantly, the use of implicit and explicit measures can provide insight on how interactive
processes occurring within relatively short temporal time scales (milliseconds to minutes) affect leadership decision-making and
organizational behavior (e.g., Kleiman & Hassin, 2011; Verplanken & Holland, 2002).
Researchers can implement techniques more common in neurological and social-cognitive studies to explore how rapidly
occurring individual and interpersonal processes can create cascading effects on leadership outcomes. For example, visualization
techniques have been employed to explore how affective experiences affect memory and cognition (Naidoo, Kohari, Lord, &
DuBois, 2010); verbal patterns and voice quality have been analyzed using computer technology, predicting historians' ratings of
U.S. presidents and Canadian prime ministers (DeGroot, Aime, Johnson, & Kluemper, 2011); and research that creatively
manipulates subtle environmental cues (e.g., Ashton-James, van Baaren, Chartrand, Decety, & Karremans, 2007; Giessner &
Schubert, 2007) has begun to explore how physical embodiment affects leadership emergence and social influence. Other
methodological approaches might include neuroimaging technology, which has unraveled the neurological basis for leadership
complexity in decision-making and influence (Hannah, Balthazard, Waldman, Jennings, & Thatcher, 2013). It is also likely that
greater use of EEG and fMRI technologies will allow future research to test theories in more sophisticated ways. Neuroscience has
made impressive progress in understanding emotional and self-relevant circuits, and it may be possible to understand reactions
to leadership in terms of relevance to such circuits.
Despite our recommendations for dynamic research designs that capture events occurring across time, we do not intend to
argue that well-designed cross-sectional research should be abandoned. Such designs, especially at initial stages of inquiry on
specific research topics, may be very beneficial. Indeed, before pursuing refined longitudinal research on a topic of interest, it is
useful to determine if a specific research topic offers promise for better understanding leadership. For example, if a new approach
to leadership is found to explain no incremental variance in outcomes beyond existing approaches, it may not be worth pursuing.
Cross-sectional research employing multiple sources of data and adequately controlling for established leadership approaches
could certainly serve such purposes. If such research does in fact reveal potential for a new approach to leadership via the
discovery of non-redundant relationships to salient outcomes, then longitudinal research methods using varying time intervals
advocated in the current article may be employed. Indeed, the use of multiple methods for testing hypotheses is a hallmark of
solid scientific research. Additionally, it is not within the realm of possibility to test entire theories in a single investigation.
Although doing so may be valuable for addressing some hypotheses, it certainly should not be a requirement for all leadership
research. Thus, our recommendations for creative new research designs for the study of leadership are not meant to suggest that
there no longer remains value in cross-sectional field research. Instead, we contend that the methods recommended complement
cross-sectional designs by providing an enhanced level of detail and incorporation of contextual variables.
54 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
4.3. Limitations
In this article, we developed a framework that emphasizes the importance of process, which we used to organize and describe
a vast array of leadership theories. Although the framework's underlying structure could be applied towards the classification of
any leadership theory, there are several limitations that apply to how this framework was described and applied within the
context of this article. First, due to the extensive reach of the leadership literature, it is impossible to thoroughly describe how this
framework could be applied to each leadership theory. As such, we note that the select leadership theories that we used to
illustrate each form of emergence represent areas of research that are especially familiar to the authors and serve only to illustrate
the application of our framework rather than to signify the relative importance of one theory to the next.
Another limitation worthy of mention is that we focused on classifying leadership theories in top-tier research outlets, which
may have excluded theory and research on leadership domains that are flourishing in other publication journals. For example,
leadership research can also be found in many educational journals and those that focus on management in the public sector (e.g.,
Human Relations, Journal of Management Studies). Hence, although our review makes an effort towards unifying leadership theory
and offers general conclusions on the state of the field, we note that a far more comprehensive understanding of the field and its
development can be obtained by including perspectives provided by both academic and organizational practitioners. This
approach can offer a more balanced perspective for understanding the kinds of processes that impact leaders or are used by
leaders to affect organizations, organizational members, and societies.
One final limitation of our approach is that we often compare the recent growth of leadership research to trends identified by
prior scholars who utilized a traditional non-quantitative review approach (e.g., House & Aditya, 1997), rather than our data
driven approach. It may be the case that some different conclusions would be drawn if we employed a comparison using a data
driven approach over a longer period of time, rather than comparing traditional reviews to our data driven review method.
5. Conclusion
As Kaiser et al. (2008) acknowledged in their review, leaders are influential in determining the fate of their organizations
through their decisions, strategies, and influence on others. This sentiment has been shared by many scholars across multiple
disciplinary fields, which has contributed to the rapid proliferation of leadership research over the last decade. As our review of
the leadership field has shown, leadership theory and research, while primarily published in LQ (59% of the coded articles), has
extended beyond LQ and into the purview of other top-tier publication outlets over the last decade. Our review has also shown
that since the start of the new millennium, we have witnessed the growth of emerging leadership theories such as neurological
perspectives on leadership, and the continued proliferation of theories relating to leading for creativity and innovation, toxic/dark
leadership, and strategic leadership. Several established leadership theories continue to capture the interest of the field including
neo-charismatic, information processing, trait, and leader–follower exchange theories. However, other leadership theories have
not witnessed significant growth, including behavioral approaches, contingency theory, and path-goal theory. Overall, the growth
and development of the leadership field presents both exciting new possibilities and challenges that confront scholars as they
navigate the complexities of a field that has become increasingly diverse and rich in theoretical insight.
Our review also shows how much the leadership field has developed in recent decades. To date, we have identified a total of 66
different leadership theory domains. Although this diversity has brought forth novel perspectives that enrich our knowledge of
leadership, it also presents several challenges that future research must address. Notably, future research needs to develop
integrative perspectives that consider how disparate leadership theories relate or operate simultaneously to influence the
emergence of leadership phenomena. We have argued that attention to these dynamic processes as they unfold over time and
across different levels of analysis is critical because it helps capture the complexity that defines real individual, group, and
organizational systems. However, efforts to advance leadership theory and research will require that we pay attention to the
processes that underlie phenomenon and occur at multiple levels of analysis. By understanding how leaders influence underlying
processes that lead to organizational outcomes, scholars can also develop integrative perspectives that unify diverse theories and
stimulate novel leadership research in the new millennium. Yet, attention to non-linear forms of emergence may also require that
our technologies and methodologies advance in order to capture or simulate the dynamics postulated by compositional and
compilational theories.
As a field, we have amassed an extensive body of research and theory that has solidified the importance of leadership in
organizational science. However, we also know much more about the outcomes of leadership than the processes that affect the
emergence of these outcomes. For example, these processes include followers, as well as momentary (e.g., active identities) and
more enduring structures (e.g., goal orientation climate, ethical culture), that are influenced by leaders. Additionally, leaders are
embedded within organizational systems that are continually evolving, creating a more complex picture for understanding how
individuals think, feel, and behave in response to changing events. Leadership may also involve collaborative team processes,
bottom-up follower-based processes, as well as more typical hierarchical, top-down influences. This view challenges the stability
and certainty that is typically found within the dominant leader-centric, global, trait-oriented thematic category that have defined
the field. By inviting scholars to consider how processes change and evolve as they are influenced by context, as well as by
leadership occurring from multiple sources within organizations, leadership theory can move closer to the outcomes we seek to
explain. Linking processes to outcomes can advance theory, and it will also provide a firmer basis for leadership interventions.
Finally, it is important to recognize the reasons no unified theory of leadership currently exist. Leadership theory emphasizes
many outcomes, from how leaders are perceived to how leaders affect unit performance; it involves actions of group members
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 55
(Day, 2000) as well as those of formal leaders; it has been applied to levels that include events, individuals, dyads, groups,
organizations, and political systems; it has focused on immediate and delayed effects; and it often incorporates contextual
differences. Thus, it is not surprising that leadership involves 66 different theoretical domains and a wide variety of
methodological approaches. A unique aspect of LQ is that it welcomes this diversity in conceptualization and approaches to
leadership, helping to create a vibrant, developing, and relevant scientific domain. We have provided a summary of the field in the
first 12 years of this millennium, along with a variety of assessments and recommendations. We hope that it will provide a useful
cornerstone for future developments in leadership in the years to come.
Thematic category
number
Thematic category title Leadership theories & content within thematic category
1 Neo-charismatic theories These articles discussed transformational and/or charismatic leadership topics, e.g., concepts of
charisma, consequences of charismatic leadership. Sometimes the focus was on transformational
leadership; at other times the only focus was charismatic leadership. Frequently, both
transformational and charismatic leadership were mentioned, resulting in a category that combined
these two. This thematic category also includes inspirational, Pygmalion effects, visionary,
self-sacrificing and ideological/pragmatic, full-range and outstanding leadership theories.
(Representative articles: Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Bono & Judge, 2004; Judge et
al., 2004; Mumford, Antes, Caughron, & Friedrich, 2008)
2 Information processing theories This thematic category includes articles which pertained to cognitive approaches to
information processing and decision making processes in leadership including attribution
theories, leader and follower cognitions (e.g., perceptions), the connectionist approach, and
implicit leadership theories.
(Representative articles: Lord & Hall, 2005; Lord & Shondrick, 2011; Martinko, Harvey, &
Douglas, 2007)
3 Social exchange/relational
leadership theories
This thematic category includes leadership theories with a relational focus, including Leader–
Member Exchange Theory (LMX), individualized leadership, vertical dyad linkage and related
relational leadership theories.
(Representative articles: Uhl-Bien, 2006; Brower, Schoorman, & Tan, 2000; Shin & Zhou, 2003)
4 Dispositional/trait theories This thematic category includes articles that looked at individual differences in leaders and
investigated specific traits, abilities or clusters of abilities that contribute to leadership
effectiveness. It includes the traditional trait approach, as well as other newer approaches, i.e.,
nature of managerial traits, managerial attributes, skills and competence, situational relevance
of skills, and leader motive profile theory (LMP).
(Representative articles: Judge & Bono, 2000; Zaccaro, 2007)
5 Diversity & cross-cultural
leadership theories
The focus of this thematic category is on domestic and cross-cultural issues of leadership. Diversity
theories investigate the experiences of women and minorities in leadership positions, and of
diverse followers within domestic borders, e.g., the benefits of more women leaders, the
challenges facing women in leadership roles. The cross-cultural thematic category includes articles
comparing the leadership processes of one culture to another, or looking at leadership in non-US
populations to discern if European/US leadership theories applied in such settings/culture, country
& attributes of leadership, universality, cultural & institutional changes, differences in Leadership
across cultures, leadership in the multinational firm, and the GLOBE Project.
(Representative articles: Eagly & Chin, 2010; Kirkman, Chen, Farh, Chen, & Lowe, 2009;
Walumbwa, Lawler, & Avolio, 2007)
6 Follower centric theories Theories that prioritize the follower in the leader–follower pairing comprised this thematic
category. Specifically, it includes articles investigated follower attributes related to the
leadership process (e.g., identity, motivation, and values), the active roles follower play in
leader–follower dynamics, romance of leadership (RoL), and follower outcomes. Articles with
aesthetic perspectives in leadership that investigated follower's subjective evaluation of leader
qualities through aesthetic senses were included in this category.
(Representative articles: Bligh, 2011; Hansen, Ropo, & Sauer, 2007; Howell & Shamir, 2005)
7 Behavioral theories This thematic category focuses on research using the leadership behavior frameworks of The Ohio
State University Leadership Studies (OSU/LBDQ), and Michigan Leadership Studies, nature and
consequences of participative, shared leadership, delegation, empowerment of leadership, studies
on task-oriented behavior and initiating structure, and people or relations-oriented and
individualized consideration behavior, critical incidents, the high-high leader, leadership behavior
taxonomies, and specific task behaviors. Studies that focused on leadership punishment or reward
behaviors were included as well.
(Representative articles: Carson et al., 2007; Podsakoff, Bommer, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006)
8 Contingency theories This thematic category includes articles where the leader adjusted to the situation, or adjusted
the situation to fit him- or herself. This included the Lease Preferred Coworker (LPC)
contingency model, path-goal theory of leadership, leadership substitution theory, situational
leadership theory, multiple linkage model, cognitive resources theory, applications for
adaptive leadership, life cycle theory of leadership, and normative decision model, and flexible
leadership theory.
(Representative articles: Keller, 2006; Vroom & Jago, 2007; Yukl, 2008)
9 Power and influence theories The focus of this thematic category is on the concepts of power and influence, power types and
sources, consequences of position and personal power, impression management and influence
Appendix A. Leadership theory coding scheme
56 J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62
Appendix A (continued)
Thematic category
number
Thematic category title Leadership theories & content within thematic category
tactics, and political skills. The focal level of analysis for these influence and political tactics is
dyadic, group and organizational as opposed to institutional, regional, and societal.
(Representative articles: Ammeter, Douglas, Gardner, Hochwarter, & Ferris, 2002; Treadway,
Hochwarter, Ferris, Kacmar, Douglas,
et al., 2004)
10 Strategic leadership This thematic category addresses leadership phenomena at the highest levels of organizations
and how executive leaders influence organizational performance. The focal level of analysis
involves CEO or other top leader and/or top-management teams (TMT) at the upper echelon
levels of the organization. Topics include constraints on executives, top management teams
and leadership succession, upper echelon theory, conditions affecting the need for strategic
leadership, and effects of CEO leadership. This category also includes research on public
leadership, e.g., president, professional politicians, as these individuals direct large bureaucracies, determine strategy, and are commonly viewed as reasons for success or failure of
public initiatives in parallel with their corporate counterparts.
(Representative articles: Boal & Hooijberg, 2001; Vera & Crossan, 2004)
11 Contextual leadership theories This thematic category addresses leadership in specific arenas, such as the military or
education setting and how leadership practices often are constrained by contextual variables
(i.e., period of time in organizational processes), or environmental characteristics (i.e., whether
conflict pervades). Articles dealing with the contextual theory of Osborn et al. (2002) were also
placed in this category. To contribute to this thematic category, authors must explicitly indicate
that the primary article focus is on contextual factors.
(Representative articles: Osborn et al., 2002; Porter & McLaughlin, 2006)
12 Complexity and systems
leadership theories
Articles in this thematic category encompass catastrophe or complexity theory, with the
concept of complex adaptive systems (CAS) and encompassed how complexity theory was
useful in describing how leaders can be successful in turbulent environments. Social network
and integrative perspectives of leadership were also included.
(Representative articles: Avolio, 2007; Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006; Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2002;
Schneider & Somers, 2006; Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007)
13 Team leadership This thematic category includes articles where teams were the primary focus, or the articles
attempted to apply one or more leadership theories to team settings in a novel fashion. The
focal level of analysis involves teams and groups at the mid- and lower-level echelons of the
organization. Topics include the nature of leadership in different types of teams, determinants
of team performance, procedures for facilitating team learning, guidelines for team building,
and leadership function in decision making in groups.
(Representative articles: Mehra, Smith, Dixon, & Robertson, 2006; Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks,
2002)
14 Leadership emergence
& development
Articles that prescribed or described pathways or processes by which leaders came to possess
leadership capacity, follower recognition of leadership status, and a systems perspective of
leadership development defined this thematic category. Specific topics include leadership
training programs, designing effective training, specific techniques of leadership training,
learning from experience, developmental activities, self-help activities, facilitating conditions
for leadership development, development and identification of leaders, and leadership
assessment, appraisal and selection.
(Representative articles: Day, 2001; Wolff et al., 2002)
15 Ethical/moral leadership
theories
This thematic category encompasses leadership theories that have in common a core focus on
altruistic behaviors. These theories of ethical leadership investigate leader moral priorities,
including how an ethical orientation toward leadership is developed; how an ethical approach
to leadership is important; the consequences of ethical leadership and how it can be sustained.
Authentic servant and spiritual leadership theories are also classified in this thematic category.
(Representative articles: Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Brown et al., 2005; Fry, 2003; Liden et al., 2008)
16 Leading for creativity & change Articles in this thematic category investigated creative leadership processes from a variety of
perspectives, covering topics like innovation and organizational learning. Articles in this
thematic category also dealt with leader's roles in organizational change, or larger social
changes in society or government, e.g., developing a vision, implementing changes, and
influencing organizational culture. These changes were spurred by direct or indirect actions of
leaders.
(Representative articles: Denis, Lamothe, & Langley, 2001; Jaussi & Dionne, 2003; Mumford,
Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002)
17 Identity-based leadership theories This thematic category includes self-concept and social identity approaches to leadership, i.e.,
studies adopting the work of Hogg and colleagues on leader categorization theory and studies
adopting other social identity and self-concept frameworks.
(Representative articles: Hogg, 2001; Van Knippenberg et al., 2004)
18 Emotions and leadership Articles in this thematic category encompass leaders' and followers' affect, and a variety of
influences that emotions, positive and negative, have at all levels of leadership both on the
leader and follower.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
(Representative articles: Bono & Ilies, 2006; Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002; Humphrey, 2002)
19 Destructive leadership This thematic category encompasses cases where leaders misbehaved, acted in ways contrary
to the well-being of followers and/or the organization, and the setting where they were
leaders, including abusive leadership, toxic leadership, and followers' susceptibility and
(continued on next page)
J.E. Dinh et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 25 (2014) 36–62 57
References
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Antonakis, J., Avolio, B. J., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003). Context and leadership: An examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 261–295.
Ashforth, B. E., Gioia, D. A., Robinson, S. L., & Treviño, L. K. (2008). Re-viewing organizational corruption. Academy of Management Review, 33, 570–684.
Ashforth, B. E., Rogers, K. M., & Corley, K. G. (2011). Identity in organizations: Exploring cross-level dynamics. Organizational Science, 22, 114–1156.
Ashton-James, C., van Baaren, R. B., Chartrand, T. L., Decety, J., & Karremans, J. (2007). Mimicry and me: The impact of mimicry on self-construal. Social Cognition,
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Appendix A (continued)
Thematic category
number
Thematic category title Leadership theories & content within thematic category
destructive followership as well.
(Representative articles: Einarsen, Aasland, & Skogstad, 2007; Padilla, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2007)
20 Biological approaches to leadership This thematic category includes articles using a biological approach to examine the genetic and
environmental impacts on leadership emergence, development and effectiveness such as
articles using behavioral genetics work with twin designs. This category also includes articles
investigated leader quality and behaviors using applications of social cognitive neuroscience to
study the mechanisms of human brain in cognition, emotion and behavior such as studies with
EEG, fMRI or somatic marker detection designs.
(Representative articles: Boyatzis et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2012; Waldman, Balthazard, &
Peterson, 2011)
21 E-leadership theories This thematic category encompasses the study of leadership effects of task, technology and
distance in virtual space. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.Specifically, leadership in a technology-enabled working environment, leader's competence and the requirements of tasks, important dimensions and effects of
type of tasks, sociotechnical systems, interaction potential, leadership and physical space and
distance, leadership and psychosocial space, networks, electronic communication networking,
e-Leadership, and leadership in experimental communication networks.
(Representative articles: Avolio et al., 2001; Golden, Veiga, & Dino, 2008).
22 Leader error and recovery This thematic category encompasses investigation of the nature (e.g., action or inaction) and
antecedents of leader errors. Topics also include error taxonomy, and effects of leader errors.
(Representative articles: Hunter, Tate, Dzieweczynski, & Bedell-Avers, 2011).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
23 Entrepreneurial leadership This thematic category encompasses the convergence and intersection between the leadership
and entrepreneurship literature and how each stream of research can inform the other. It also
includes the articles exploring specific components of entrepreneurial leadership process, e.g.,
entrepreneurial leadership vision and behaviors.
(Representative articles: Cogliser & Brigham, 2004; Ruvio, Rosenblatt, & Hertz-Lazarowitz,
2010).
Notes: The coding scheme is adapted and expanded from Gardner et al. (2010). The category that was not included in that scheme was marked with its respective
sources. There categories are not mutually exclusive. Articles often employed multiple theoretical frameworks while investigated the phenomena of interest

The article, “Problems, problems, problems: The social construction of ‘leadership’” by Keith Grint, gives a closer look at the issue of management, leadership and authority. Grint begins by giving a deeper definition of leadership and management. He contends that managers use defined and tested processes to deal with emerging problems, while leaders try to reduce anxiety when problems arise by developing original ideas.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. He observes how people respond to different situations and he notes that leaders do not necessarily make decisions by analyzing and contextualizing the situation. He categorizes three different types of situations, which are tame, wicked and critical, and he proposes three different types of power, calculative, ideological and coercive, that are ideal for dealing with each of the situations. Grint proposes that wicked problems require the application of leadership since they are complex and original. They do not have a specific right or wrong answer. Critical problems on the other hand attract a command type of authority since there is usually no time to deliberate on the action to take.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

While Grint has explored the subject of management and leadership in a deep meaning, he has categorically failed to mention the subject of change. Leadership and management cannot be fully examined or exercised practically without change taking place. All his illustrations and case studies that concern leadership and management have involved the process of change. Leaders emerge and are noted when situations cease to be as they were before, and they start becoming more challenging. Leaders and managers do not have to come from senior management and those in the highest positions are not always responsible for the decisions made (Ladkin, 2010). Although Grint mentions this, especially when dealing with tame decisions, he does not mention the fact that other junior members are involved in making decisions. For instance, in the case study concerning Iraq, Grint only mentions the decisions made by the president, and noticeably chooses to omit other people who might have been involved in the decision making process.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Grint is of the opinion that analyzing a situation is not necessary, before making decisions. he states, ‘I am not suggesting that the correct decision-making process lies in the correct analysis of the situation’ (Grint, 2005, p. 1475). This may not augur well with some of the scholars who support contextualizing situations before making decisions. It is important for a person to analyze the situation so that he or she can decide on the decisions to make. This will also enable the leader to note the trends in various sectors (Gold, et al., 2010). Klann (2003) suggests that it is important for leaders to examine a crisis more deeply, so that they can observe and take advantage of the opportunities that are present. Taking the illustration of the war in Iraq, the leader would have taken the time to analyze the situation before declaring war. He instead chose to declare war before a careful analysis of the situation, although there had been numerous terrorist activities in different parts of the world. His command style of leadership meant that he took an immediate action.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Grint purports that in most cases, leaders usually have many choices, but they make decisions, which are contrary to their beliefs. This is not always the case however, as the most effective leaders will often act according to their beliefs (Marker, 2010). Grint claims that leaders lust after, and are corrupted by power (Grint, 2005, p. 1469). Effective and successful leaders have a vision of what they want to do and which direction they want to take. They are passionate and they are full of integrity and courage (Baltax, 2010; Stephenson, 2011).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. Grint seems to have focused on the greed embodied by some leaders and he has left out the positive attributes. It is not easy to focus on the personal attributes and values possessed by a leader and try to place everyone who aspires to be a leader in that category. Murray (2010) asserts that great leaders must show the characters of humility and arrogance. While many people may not support the idea of arrogant leaders, Murray is of the opinion that people see arrogant leaders as people who are worth following, yet they should be humble enough to respect other people’s decisions.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

When defining and differentiating between management and leadership, Grint suggests that management deals with situations that have existed before and therefore the manager will use past solutions, while leadership supports the use of innovative ideas. This definition is supported by McCrimmon (2010), who suggests that leadership calls for new direction while management executes directions that have existed in the past. Therefore, based on this definition, it is worthwhile to note that many people make conclusions based on past decisions. Very few people come up with original ideas especially when they have a crisis. They would rather do what have been tried and tested before, rather than try to experiment with innovative ideas at that moment. They prefer to remain in comfortable positions, where they are familiar with the limitations and weaknesses.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

I do not agree with Grint’s perception of terrorism. He does not see it as something significant and he states, ‘It is not as if terrorism (as defined by the coalition) is – at least as yet – a significant threat to human life, especially compared to other ‘traditional killer’ (Grint, 2005, p. 1485). He compares the number of deaths that have occurred because of road traffic accidents, diseases, and smoking, to those that have been caused by acts of terrorism and global war. This seems as if he is justifying terrorist activities because he does not seem to think these deaths matter. He does not offer a definite way of dealing with such an issue, but notes that terrorism can be perceived as a crisis, wicked or tame problem. It is important that leaders take an active role when handling acts of terrorism or other disasters (Ursano et al., 2003; Meindl & Shamir, 2007). The way that a leader will choose to define such a problem, will ultimately decide how he or she will deal with it. This is seen in the way the United States of America has devoted all efforts in combating terrorism (Winkler, 2006).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Epistemology refers to how people become knowledgeable on different issues. Grint uses rational thinking after carefully analyzing some of the relevant literature. He uses diverse materials such as books and journals. Some of these are not directly relevant to the subject in discussion and they include different fictional works such as a quote from Shakespeare, analogies from different stories such as An Enemy of the People and the March Folly among others. He uses many different books, journal publications and scholarly articles, in addition to several websites. This shows the extensive research he has undertaken and it demonstrates his depth of knowledge.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This course sets the foundational stage for the Leadership and Management specialty track. Students focus on theoretical and practical aspects of leadership and management functions in healthcare administration, and they discuss standards of practice for nursing administration. They explore a range of topics, including roles and responsibilities, quality improvements, strategic planning and management, regulations, accreditation, and information systems. Through this course, students learn the goals of the nurse leader, including ways to facilitate efficient, quality healthcare delivery to achieve excellence in patient care and services.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

NURS 6201: Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare

Strategic Planning for Change—Overview

For this Assignment, you explore one challenge that you would like to see addressed in your organization or one with which you are familiar. You will continue to work on this Assignment over the next several weeks. You will prepare an outline for this assignment due day 7 of week 5. This outline will help organize your work toward this assignment.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This Assignment also serves as your Portfolio Assignment.

To prepare:

• Identify a problem that you would like to investigate for this Assignment. Consider the resources and discussion about strategic planning and models that guide change such as SWOT, Balanced Scorecard, or Six Sigma and lean principles. Review evidence-based literature for data related to your selected problem. You will need to use at least five current (not more than five years old), peer-reviewed articles. If you cannot find adequate evidence, you may need to refine your topic. Your Instructor may provide some guidance for your literature search.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

By Day 7 of Week 2, enter your selected problem in the Strategic Planning for Change Forum of the Discussion Board.

Your Instructor will approve your selected problem or provide feedback to help you refine your focus for this Assignment.

While this portion of the Assignment is not graded, it is required.

Once you have received feedback/approval of your selected problem:

• Reflect on the topics you are examining in this course and consider how they relate to your selected problem. Plan to analyze the problem using principles, theories, and concepts related to leadership and management, as well as other pertinent course themes.

• Review evidence-based literature for data related to your selected problem. You will need to use at least five current (not more than five years old), peer-reviewed articles. Your Instructor may provide some guidance for your literature search.

• Synthesize findings from the research literature and/or drawn from other sources of evidence.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

• Develop evidence-based recommendations for addressing the problem.

© Laureate Education, Inc. 2

Write a 6-page paper (not including title page, references, or any appendix) that addresses the following:

• Introduction/Statement of the problem (1/2 page)

• Review of the literature for potential solutions to the identified problem

• Synthesis of the evidence as applied to the stated problem.

• Strategic plan for suggested courses of action based on your evidence and including application of a change theory.

• Conclusion/Summary

Reminder: The School of Nursing requires that all papers submitted include a title page, introduction, summary, and references. The Sample Paper provided at the Walden Writing Center provides an example of those required elements (available at http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm). All papers submitted must use this formatting.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Many parents experience breastfeeding problems in the early days after having a baby. Breastfeeding (Lactation) Counselors have the opportunity to make a real difference to the families they work with. Breastfeeding counselor training will enable you to assist clients to overcome breastfeeding difficulties, building a close relationship with those you are working with, and knowing that with your support, you can help a parent and baby gain the benefits of breastfeeding. Whether you want to become a Breastfeeding Counselor on its own or take your first step towards the IBCLC certification, this ANCC accredited course will provide you with the knowledge, tools, and skills to achieve your goals!NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Being a Breastfeeding Counselor brings you into a family at a time when they may be struggling. Whether you’re helping a new parent learn how to latch her baby on, or working intensively someone who’s trying to overcome mastitis, your role will be a crucial one. At CBI we make sure you have a thorough grounding in all these areas and more. You’ll also have support and guidance from your trainer, and from our network of breastfeeding counselors around the world.

Much of your work as a Breastfeeding Counselor will be listening to the clients you work with and truly supporting them. As a student you’ll develop strong communication skills, learning the important skills of reflective practice and effective and active listening. During this online training program, you will develop strong skills in using the counseling process to help clients feel supported and heard. You’ll also cover all the business aspects – how to build your client base, paperwork, forms and legal issues, advertising and promoting your business.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Join our Facebook group to learn more about options for Breastfeeding Counselor training and certification: Becoming a Lactation Consultant

Fast Facts
Course Fees
Assignments
Certification: Certified Breastfeeding Counselor (CBC)

Duration: 10-15 months

Time Limit: None

Delivery: Online

Cost: From $905 or 5 payments of $191

Refunds: Full refund within 2 days, less administration fee ($50)

Prerequisites: None

IBCLC: Provides the 90 hours required for IBCLC

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Course Syllabus
No other breastfeeding counselor course makes it as easy to complete your certification, while covering such a depth of topics. In addition to the counseling skills required as a Breastfeeding Counselor , we also focus on strengthening your knowledge base of the physiology of lactation, developing communication skills, and provide a strong foundation in preparation for the IBCLC exam.

During your training you’ll cover four main topic areas:

Communication Skills
Physiology of Lactation
Being a Breastfeeding Counselor
Building Your Business
Take a look at the topics below that are covered in your Breastfeeding Counselor training. If you prefer to read it later, you can download the syllabus.

Communication Skills
Enhancing your communication skills enables you to build strong relationships with clients and caregivers alike. Many of you will work in challenging environments. During the course, you’ll explore these challenges and develop skills in building relationships with caregivers, without compromising your professionalism or your client’s wishes.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

At the heart of every CBI training and certification program is reflective practice. But what exactly is “reflective practice”?

At its simplest, reflective practice is looking at what you’ve done, or didn’t do, and reflecting on it. In relation to CBI training, though, it’s so much more. Reflective practice is about examining choices and decisions, considering them from different perspectives, thinking about alternatives, learning from them, and then applying that learning to your work. It demonstrates best practice in continuing education, increases confidence and professionalism. It’s an incredibly valuable skill that you can pass on to your clients and help them to assimilate their experiences.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

All CBI training programs have an ongoing reflective practice focus. In every assignment you submit, this will be evaluated by your trainer, providing you with feedback on this aspect and help you to see your own growth in this area. You’ll be encouraged to reflect on the language you use, your participation in discussions and how you approach every aspect of your work.

At the end of this module, you’ll write a reflective essay that will be reviewed by your trainer who’ll provide feedback and assessment.

Topics in this module
effective communication
language and communication
active listening skills
reflective practice and debriefing
diversity & cultural humility
evidence-based care and informed choice
grief and loss
professional practice
perspective and recognition
Being a Breastfeeding Counselor
Develop your hands-on skills as a Breastfeeding Counselor, enabling you to provide the best care possible. You’ll learn how to use the counseling process to really hear clients and guide them through finding solutions to their breastfeeding problems. You’ll examine the social and cultural influences on breastfeeding, and explore the formula industry and its impact on breastfeeding rates across the world. During this module, you’ll provide reviews on three books, a survey, evaluations of the support hours you’ve provided, and answer a series of case study questions. These will all be reviewed and assessed by your trainer. This module has been mapped to the IBCLC Exam Blueprint.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Topics in this module
recognizing perspectives on birth and parenting
the role of a breastfeeding counselor
using the counseling process
counseling tools
teaching breastfeeding classes
the social and cultural context of breastfeeding
the formula industry and the WHO code
parenting and breastfeeding
working towards IBCLC certification
working as a breastfeeding counselor
Physiology of Lactation
Gain a thorough understanding of the anatomy and physiology of lactation. All student materials are focused on evidence-based care. Evidence-based means medical care that is based on sound research. The opinions and thoughts of experts on breastfeeding are referred to throughout your student manuals – it’s important to hear the views of others in the field to build your own knowledge base. At the end of this module, you’ll complete the online, open-book tests to assess your learning. You’ll also submit a reflective evaluation of this module which will be reviewed and assessed by your trainer. This module has been mapped to the IBCLC Exam Blueprint.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Topics in this module
physiology of lactation
breast and infant anatomy
infant growth and development
positioning and latching
early weeks of breastfeeding
breastfeeding problems
health problems in the baby
illness in the mother
breastfeeding a premature baby
breastfeeding in special circumstances
medications and toxins
moving beyond breastfeeding
equipment and supplies
Building Your Business
The Building Your Business module provides you with everything you need to know about starting up, or growing, your business. We take away the daunting aspects of running a business and help you to find strategies to get started. With this in mind, our easy step-by-step process will soon have you on track with a business plan (that you understand!) and all the documentation you need for success.

This is an optional module and does not include any assignments. However, some students prefer to have more guidance. For this reason, we offer three different mentorship options that you can choose from.

Topics in this module
becoming a birth and parenting professional
determine your personal and business goals
learn marketing strategies such as segmentation, targeting, and positioning
develop a customer profile
analyze your competitors
determine your unique selling point
identify ways to broaden your products and services
develop your brand
learn the basics of website design
develop a social media strategy
determine your advertising approach
learn how to carry out financial analysis and avoid debt
understand the different options for a legal business structure
time management and ways to deal with work stresses

Think of the managers you have reported to thus far in your career. Now consider the people you have worked with or know of that you would consider leaders. Based on these experiences, what would you surmise about the responsibilities of managers and leaders and about the distinctions between these two categories in health care settings?NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This week’s Learning Resources classify management and leadership (which are often confused in everyday discussion) and explain their significance for health care organizations. As you advance professionally, it is critical to understand the distinctions between management and leadership and how you can apply this knowledge for increasing effectiveness in your workplace.

To prepare:

Review the information in the Learning Resources.
Conduct additional research on your own and select at least two current, credible sources that contribute to your understanding of management and leadership.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.
Reflect on how the roles of management and leadership differ in supporting the organization to set and achieve goals.
Drawing upon specific examples from a current or previous practice setting, bring to mind someone who seemed to be a leader but not a manager and someone who seemed to be a manager but not a leader (generally speaking, or within a specific circumstance). Be prepared to support your assessment with specific behavioral descriptions found in the literature.

On the Week 8 Discussion Board, 1 page, APA format

an analysis of how management and leadership roles differ in terms of supporting an organization to set and achieve goals.
In addition, post descriptions of an individual who demonstrates leadership behaviors but not management behaviors and an individual who demonstrates management behaviors but not leadership behaviors.
Provide your rationale, identifying specific characteristics of effective managers and leaders. (Note:Do not identify these individuals by name, position, or location.)NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course readings

Theory and application(8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
o Review Chapters 2 and 3

Note: Many of the articles in this week’s Required Readings are foundational in the leadership and management literature. The concepts presented in these early articles still apply to today’s workplace.

Jennings, B. M., Scalzi, C. C., Rodgers, J. D., & Keane, A. (2007). Differentiating nursing leadership and management competencies. Nursing Outlook, 55(4), 169–175.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

In this foundational article, Jennings explores the similarities and differences between leadership and management competencies. The research implies that there is a growing ambiguity between the competencies required in nursing that must be addressed.

Keys, Y. (2014). Looking ahead to our next generation of nurse leaders: Generation X Nurse Managers. Journal of nursing management, 22(1), 97-105.doiI: 10.1111/jonm.12198
Abstract excerpt: The aim of this study identifies elements of professional success, and personal and professional fulfilment as defined by Generation X Nurse Managers.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Leach, L. S., & McFarland, P. (2014). Assessing the Professional Development Needs of Experienced Nurse Executive Leaders. Journal of Nursing Administration, 44(1), 51-62. doi: 10.1097/NNA.0000000000000021
Abstract excerpt: The objective of this study was to identify the professional development topics that senior nurse leaders believe are important to their advancement and success. Visionary leadership, leading complexity, and effective teams were the highest ranked leadership topics. Leading change, advancing health: The future of nursing, healthy work environments, and healthcare reform were also highly ranked topics.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Marker, D. (2010). Leadership or management? Management Quarterly, 51(2), 31–34.
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

This article defines what leadership and management are and explains differences between the concepts. According to Marker, managers are associated with position and power, while leadership is associated with position, guidance, and communication.

Ross, E. J., Fitzpatrick, J. J., Click, E. R., Krouse, H. J., & Clavelle, J. T. (2014). Transformational leadership practices of nurse leaders in professional nursing associations. Journal of Nursing Administration, 44(4), 201-206.doi: 10.1097/NNA.0000000000000044
Abstract excerpt: To build transformational frontline nurse leaders, organizations should balance formal leadership training programs with advanced degree attainment to encourage leaders to envision and challenge the future.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Stoddart, K., Bugge, C., Shepherd, A., & Farquharson, B. (2014). The new clinical leadership role of senior charge nurses: a mixed methods study of their views and experience. Journal of Nursing Management, 22(1), 49-59.DOI: 10.1111/jonm.12008
Abstract excerpt: The aim of this study was to investigate the experience and views of senior charge nurses in relation to the implementation of a national clinical leadership policy.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Yi, H. H., & Yi, Y. J. (2014). Influence of Leader-Member exchange quality of head nurses and clinical nurses on organizational commitment and job satisfaction in clinical nurses. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing Administration, 20(2), 195-205.
Abstract excerpt: The purpose was to identify the influence the quality of head and clinical nurses’ LMX (Leader-Member Exchange) on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Leadership style of nurse managers plays a significant role in nurses' job satisfaction. However, there is limited literature in areas related to nurses' manager leadership style. The objective of this research was thus to investigate the relationship between leadership style of nurse managers and nurses' job satisfaction in Jimma University Specialized Hospital.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Methods
The study was conducted at Jimma University Specialized Hospital from January to June 2012 and used a non-experimental correlation design. All full time, non-supervisory nurses with an experience of more than one year in nursing profession were participated in the study. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire were used to collect data. Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS version16.0 statistical software. The results were analyzed through descriptive statistics followed by the application of inferential statistics on the variables. Significance level was considered when p<0.05.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Results
A total of 175 copies of the questionnaires were returned out of 186 copies distributed to respondents. The result indicated that nurses can prefer transformational leadership style over transactional leadership style and had moderate-level intrinsic (M=2.72, SD=0.71) but low level of extrinsic job satisfaction (M=1.83, SD=0.68). Furthermore, from transactional leadership, only contingent reward was found to be statically significant and correlated with extrinsic (B=0.45, p<0.01) and intrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.32, p<0.05) while all five dimension of transformational leadership style were statistically significant and correlated with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Conclusion
Nurses tended to be more satisfied with the transformational leadership than transactional leadership style. Therefore, nurses' managers should use transformational leadership style in order to increase nurses' job satisfaction.

Keywords: Leadership, Nurses, Job satisfaction, Jimma University Specialized Hospital
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Introduction
Leadership is the ability to influence and pursue the follower by guiding, motivating and directing to achieve organizational effectiveness (1). Many health management literatures emphasize that effective leadership is highly related to nurse staff work satisfaction(2) and that satisfied nurses are more likely to stay not only in the profession but also in the health care organization which they are satisfied with (3).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

There are various styles of leadership that nurse managers have demonstrated to lead staff nurses in hospital (4), but before the introduction of transformational leadership style, the transactional leadership style was perceived by most nurses' managers as the most effective style in health care organizations(4).

Since the early 1990s, transformational leadership style has been preferred over transactional leadership style (5) because health care environment demands leaders who inspire others with the vision of what can be accomplished (6). There is a limited literature in areas related to Nurse managers' leadership styles. The objective of this study was thus to investigate the relationship between leadership styles of nurse managers and nurses' job satisfaction at Jimma University Specialized Hospital. The theoretical framework guiding this study was the Transformational Leadership Theory first developed by Burns in 1978(5) and later expanded by Bass (5) to provide a useful model for effective nursing leadership in modern health care settings (Figure 1).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

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Figure 1
Bass' theoretical framework of transformational and transactional leadership styles in health care organization

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Materials and Methods
Study Area and Study Design: This study was conducted at Jimma University Specialized Hospital (JUSH) from January to June 2012. Jimma University Specialized Hospital is located in Jimma Town, 352 km southwest of Addis Ababa. This hospital is the only teaching and referral hospital in the southwestern part of the country, and provides specialized clinical services to about 12 million inhabitants (7).

The study adopted a quantitative research approach using a non-experimental correlational design. All nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital and fulfilled the four criteria, i.e. more than one years working experience in nursing profession, graduation with diploma, BSc, or MSc degree in nursing, non-supervisory management position, and working under the direct supervision of a head nurse were included in the study. Based on the data obtained from the Hospital's Human Resource Office, there were 186 nurses who fulfilled these four criteria during the study time. This study used census instead of sample since the population size was small (8).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Data Collection: Data were collected by using two standardized questionnaires. The purpose and significance of the study were explained to all participants. Furthermore, all the participants were informed that participation was completely voluntary. Then data collectors distributed copies of the questionnaires to volunteers and asked them to seal the completed questionnaire in the enclosed envelop and return to data collectors within 7 days.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form was used to measure the dependent variable of job satisfaction of staff nurses. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by Weiss (9) measures two dimensions of job satisfaction namely: internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) job satisfaction. The questionnaire has 18 items that measure the intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction using a five-point Likert Scale. The Likert Scale consists of rating options ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = dissatisfied, 3 = neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4= satisfied, 5= very satisfied).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

In the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Test-retest reliabilities are between 0.70 and 0.80 (10), with an alpha coefficient of 0.96 and an acceptable mean inter-item correlation of 0.22 (11). The second instrument used for data collection was the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). This questionnaire was used to distinguish between perceived leadership styles of transformational and transactional dimentions among nurse managers in the hospital. The transformational dimensions measured in this study included: (a) Idealized Influence (attributed), (b) Idealized Influence (behavior), (c) Inspirational Motivation, (d) Intellectual Stimulation, and; (e)Individual Consideration. The Transactional dimensions measured in this study included (a) Contingent Reward, (b) Management-by-Exception (passive), (c) Management-by-Exception (active), and; Laissez-Faire. The MLQ consists of 45 items using a Likert Scale ranging from 0 to 4 (0 = not at all, 1 = once in a while, 2 = sometimes, 3 = fairly often, and 4 = frequently, if not always). It has an acceptable Cronbach's coefficient alpha's ranged from .74 to .94 (12).

Data were collected by three diploma holder nurses after they were provided a thorough training on data collection procedure. A strict supervision was made by the researchers during the data collection. Face validity of the instrument was ensured by having the questionnaires reviewed on clarity in wording, relevance of the items, clarity of instruction, absence of biased words and phrases, use of standard English and formatting (13). The questionnaires were reviewed by one PhD holder in Public Administration and one PhD candidate in Public Health. To measure the reliability, the questionnaires were pre-tested on 18 nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospitals. Based on the pre-test result and the reviewers' comments, appropriate modifications were made on the questionnaires before the actual data collection.

Data Analysis: After data were collected, the questionnaires were checked for the completeness and consistency of reponss during data clearing, and on this basis, incomplete questionnaires were excluded. Then data analysis was made using SPSS for window version 16. The result of the study was analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, percentage, means and standard deviation; and inferential statistics such as Principal Component Analysis, Person Product-Moment Coefficient and Multiple Regression.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Prior to Principle Component Analysis, full-scale internal consistency (cronbach's α coefficient) and item-total correlation was calculated. The correlation matrix for the nine items was computed first, and the the Kaisermeyer Olklin value was found to be 0.84, exceeding the recommended value of 0.70 (16). Barlett's Test of Sphericity(17) reached statistical significant level (p<0.05). Scree plot criteria were used to determine the number of factors to be extracted. Based on Nunally and Bernstein's (18) recommendation, loadings higher than 0.4 were retained in factors. Oblique oblimin rotation was performed in order to help interpretation.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Analysis of descriptive statistics and Pearson's correlation analysis were conducted to analyze the constructs and the usefulness of the data as recommended by Yaacob (19). Finally, multiple regression analysis was used to assess the magnitude of each independent variable and to vary the mediating variable in the relationship between more than one independent variables and one dependent variable (20). The statistical significant difference targeted was 0.05 alpha level which is typical in most researches (21). The following operational definitions were used in the study:

Job satisfaction: An evaluative judgment about the degree of pleasure an employee derives from his/her job that consists of both affective and cognitive components (14). Registered staff nurses' job satisfaction is a dependent variable with components of: A) the intrinsic component of job satisfaction which is dependent on personal perception and internal feeling and includes factors such as recognition, advancement, and responsibility and B) the extrinsic components which are external job related variables that would include salary, supervision, and working conditions (15).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Transformational Leadership: The process in which leaders and subordinates raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality (5). Transformational leadership, an independent variable, includes A) attributed idealized influence that describes behaviors that encourage staff to think highly of their managers, B) behavioral idealized influence which refers to actions managers take to demonstrate values, beliefs, and sense of organizational mission, C) inspirational motivation that describes managers who are optimistic about the organization's vision of the future, D) intellectual stimulation in which the leader articulates new ideas that prompt followers to rethink conventional practice and thinking and E) individual consideration that is demonstrated by mentoring and recognizing the unique needs and abilities of staff members (2).

Transactional Leadership: Is mostly characterized by a desire to preserve the organization's existing culture, policies, and procedures (5). Transactional leadership, an independent variable, includes A) contingent rewards in which the leader provides rewards that are either tangible like finical rewards or intangible rewards like verbal form of recognition based on subordinates performance, B) active management by exception that represents managerial behaviors that focus on finding faults in the work of subordinates, C) passive management by exception which involves responding or becoming involved only when a problem occurs, and D) laissez-faire behaviors which demonstrate a lack of involvement in which mangers purposely fail to become involved in important decisions (2).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Ethical clearance was obtained from Ethical Review Committee of Jimma University, College of Business and Economics and a formal letter was written to the hospital. Verbal consent was obtained from every one of the participants before the data collection. Additionally, names of participants were not used in the study and confidentially of the respondents' information was maintained.

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Results
In this study, out of a total of 186 nurses who were working at Jimma Specialized Hospital and fulfilled the selection criteria were provided the standard questionnaires and they filled out and returned 175 copies of the questionnaires were. Response rate was 94%, which was considered as very good (22). Six individuals were unable to communicate during the data collection while five respondents returned incomplete copies of the questionnaires, which accounts for 11(6%) of the target population. The demographic data were analyzed using descriptive statistic (N=175). The age range of the subjects was 20–60, with the highest percentage (51% falling between ages of 20 and 30 years of age. The literature indicated that nurses work force in health sectors are mostly females (23); likewise, at Jimma University Specialized Hospital, (55%) of the nurses were females and the remaining (45%) were males. Seventy-nine percent of the respondents had diploma in nursing while the rest 21% had BSc degree in the same field of study. Among these respondents, 75% had 1–10 years of work experience (Table 1).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Table 1
Demographic characteristics of respondents (N=175)

Variables Frequency Percentage
Age 18–20 5 5
20–30 90 51
30–40 25 14
40–50 45 26
50–60 10 6
Gender Male 79 45
Female 96 55
Educational Qualification Diploma 139 79
BSc Degree 36 21
Work Experience 1–5 86 49
5–10 36 21
10–15 26 15
15–20 6 3
20–25 11 6
>25 10 6
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The nine items of the Multiple Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) were subjected to a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Principal Component Analysis was performed in order to ascertain whether the nurses were able to distinguish transformational and transactional leadership styles.

Table 2 shows that the cronbach's α coefficient was 0.82, indicating strong internal consistency and appropriate item homogeneity (11,18). Item total correlation results also revealed acceptable coefficients for all variables (P<0.05), ranging from 0.66 to 0.81(19). The examination of the eigenvalue > 1 criteria allowed up to 3 components, but the scree plot identified 2 components to be extracted. For the non-rotated elucidation, two components accounted for 77% of the total variance. After Oblimin rotation, all items showed prominent standardized regression coefficients for one of the two retained Components. Table 2 also shows that all transformational leadership characteristic were loading on component one with a loading range of 0.85–0.94. The unexpected finding was that one of the transactional characteristic, contingent rewards, was loaded to the transformational component with loading of 0.85. All the other transitional leadership characteristics were loaded to transactional components with loading range of 0.42–0.91. This finding indicates that nurses who participated in this study considered contingent reward as a transformational leadership characteristic.

Table 2
Item-total correlation, internal consistency, and component pattern matrix after direct Oblimin rotation from principal component analysis of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (N=175).

Items Component 1 Component 2 h2 Item-total
correlation
Idealized influence( Behavior) 0.94 .84 0.81
Idealized Influence ( attribute) 0.91 .82 0.75
Individual Consideration 0.91 .82 0.77
Inspirational Motivation 0.87 .76 0.71
Intellectual Stimulation 0.86 .75 0.72
Contingent reward 0.85 .72 0.67
Management by exception
(active) 0.91 .69 0.68
Management by exception(passive) 0.42 .70 0.67
Laissez-fair 0.42 .69 0.66
% Percent of Variance Explained* 64% 13% 77%
Correlation between factors
Component 1 1
Component 2 0.35 1
Cronbach alpha of Leadership
Dimensions 0.82
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h2= final communality estimate

*Non-rotated solution
Descriptive statistics of the leadership and job satisfaction variables are shown in Table 3. The means range from 1.71 to 2.91. The mean result indicated that nurses were more satisfied with transformational leadership style with inspirational motivation dimension (M=2.91, SD=0.81). The mean score of job satisfaction indicated that nurses demonstrated moderate-level intrinsic satisfaction (M=2.72, SD=0.71) but low level of extrinsic satisfaction (M=1.83, SD=0.68).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Table 3
Descriptive statistics for dimensions of transformational leadership, transactional leadership and job satisfaction.

Dimensions Mean Standard
Deviation
Idealized influence(Behaviour) 2.57 0.71
Idealized influence (Attribute) 2.41 0.69
Inspirational Motive 2.91 0.81
Intellectual stimulation 2.42 0.76
Individual Consideration 2.22 0.77
Contingent reward 1.81 0.68
Management by Objective (Active) 1.71 0.71
Management by Objective ( Passive) 1.22 0.72
Laissez fair 1.25 0.75
Intrinsic satisfaction 2.72 0.71
Extrinsic satisfaction 1.83 0.68
Table 4 shows that there is a statically significant positive correlation between intrinsic job satisfaction and transformational leadership dimensions: Idealised Influence (Behaviour) (r=0.31,p<0.01), Idealised Influence(attribute) (r=0.45,p<0.01), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.51,p<0.01), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.45,p<0.01), Individual Consideration (r=0.38,p<0.01). Among the five dimensions of transformational leadership style, inspirational motivation dimension has strong relationship ith wintrinsic job satisfaction. On other hand, there is a statistically significant but weak correlation between extrinsic job satisfaction and dimensions of transformational leaderships: Idealised Influence (Behaviour) (r=0.19,p<0.01), Idealised Influence( attribute) (r=0.27,p<0.01), Inspirational Motivation (r=0.21,p<0.01), Intellectual Stimulation (r=0.32,p<0.01) and Individual Consideration (r=0.25,p<0.01). In transactional leadership style, only contingent reward statically significant correlated with extrinsic (r=0.45, p<0.01) and intrinsically job satisfaction (r=0.32, p<0.05). The table also indicates that the cronbach alpha of the intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions are 0.90 and 0.94 respectively, greater than the recommended standard >0.7 (11).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Table 4
Inter-correlations among dimensions of transactional and transformational leadership with nurses' job satisfaction (N=175).

Dimensions Contingent
Reward Management by
exception
(Passive) Management by
exception
(Active) Laissez Fair Idealized
Influence
(Behaviour) Idealized
Influence
(attribute) Inspirational
Motivation Intellectual
Stimulation Individual
Consideration Cronbach alpha
Intrinsic job
satisfaction 0.32* 0.21 0.18 0.23 0.31** 0.45** 0.51** 0.45** 0.38** 0.90
Extrinsic job
satisfaction 0.45** 0.04 0.19 0.37 0.19** 0.27** 0.21** 0.32** 0.25** 0.94
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**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed),
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Multiple regression analysis was performed to test the relationship between the dimension of leadership style and job satisfaction dimension. As depicted in Table 5, there was a direct effect of the predictors that significantly explained 69% of the variability in job satisfaction. The result indicated that contingent reward was positively related to both intrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.15, p<0.01) and extrinsic job satisfaction (B=0.39, p<0.01). Management by exception (active) had statistically significant but weak relationship with intrinsic (B=0.06, p<0.05) and extrinsic (B=0.08, p<0.05) job satisfactions, while management by exception (passive) had significant but negative relationship with intrinsic (B= −0.05, p<0.05) job satisfaction.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. On the other hand, it had significant but weak relationship with extrinsic (B=0.07, p<0.05) job satisfaction. Laissez-faire style had statistically significant but negative relationship with both intrinsic (B=−0.19, p<0.05) and extrinsic (B=−0.15, p<0.05) job satisfactions. All the five dimensions of transformational leadership were found to be positively related with intrinsic: Idealized Influence(Behaviour) (B=0.32,p<0.01), Idealized Influence(Attribute) (B=0.29,p<0.01), Inspirational Motive (B=0.49,p<0.01), Intellectual Motive( B=0.49, p<0.01), Inspirational Stimulation (B=0.31,p<0.01), and Individual Consideration (B=0.35,p<0.01) as well as extrinsic: Idealized Influence (Behaviour) (B=0.19,p<0.05), Idealized Influence (attribute) (B=0.21,p<0.05), Inspirational Motivation(B=0.19,p<0.05), Intellectual Stimulation (B=0.42, p<0.05) and Individual Consideration (B=0.17,p<0.05) job satisfactions.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Table 5
Regression analysis of transactional and transformational leadership and job satisfaction (N=175).

Dimensions Intrinsic Job
Satisfaction Extrinsic Job
satisfaction
Contingent reward 0.15** 0.39**
Management by Objective (Active) 0.06* 0.08*
Management by Objective ( Passive) −0.05* 0.07*
Laissez-fair −0.19* −0.15*
Idealized influence(Behaviour) 0.32** 0.19*
Idealized influence (Attribute) 0.29** 0.21*
Inspirational Motive 0.35** 0.22**
Intellectual stimulation 0.49** 0.42*
Individual Consideration 0.35** 0.17*
R2 0.69
AdjR2 0.67
R2 Change 0.66
F Value 42.55**
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed),
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
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Discussion
The result indicated that nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital during the study can distinguish between transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.Furthermore, staff nurses preferred transformational leadership style rather than transactional leadership style. The finding is consistent with previous researches done in USA by Jordan and those conducted at China Hospitals (24, 25, 6, 26). The other important finding appeared in the result of this study was that nurses considered Contingent Reward as a transformational leadership characteristic feature. Previous research results showed that nurses viewed contingent reward as a feature of transformational leadership style (5, 10). According to Bass and Avolio (12), contingent reward involves leaders who give subordinates what they want in exchange for their support and make clear what the latter can receive if performance meets prescribed standards. Bass's study conducted in 1985 (27) on industrial managers indicated that contingent reward is one of the characteristics of transactional leadership style while nurses considered it as one of the charactertics of transformational leadership style. Medley and Larochelle (6) explained major difference between nurse and industrial leaders involved in contingent reward emphasizing that in nursing it is unusual for an individual to receive special recognition or to be rewarded tangibly for outstanding performance.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

The mean scores of transformational and transactional leadership styles indicated that nurses appeared to be more satisfied with transformational leadership style especially with inspirational motivation and idealized behavior influence. Leaders adopting inspirational motivation behavior have an ability to strengthen their followers' responses and explain important ideas in simple ways (28). Idealized Influence (behavior) also helps the leader to instill pride and faith in the follower by overcoming obstacles and confidently expressing dissatisfaction with the status quo (24,29,30). The mean score of nurses' satisfaction also indicated that nurses had low level of extrinsic satisfaction. Findings of previous studies revealed that nurses working in public hospitals in Sub-Saharan African countries did not have extrinsic job satisfaction due to low remuneration, lack of educational opportunity and poor working conditions (31, 32). On the other hand, the finding revealed that nurses had moderate level of intrinsic job satisfaction. Previous researches indicated that nurses are intrinsically satisfied due taking interest in helping others and because of professional gratification (32, 33, 34).

The result of this research also revealed that all dimensions of transformational leadership were more positively correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction than extrinsic job satisfaction. This finding is consistent with the finding of a study done in a Jordanian private hospital (24). Transformational leadership promotes employees' empowerment in implementing organizational functions (24). Employees' empowerment has played a significant role on employee self-efficiency which in turn promotes employees' intrinsic satisfaction. (29).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Multiple regression analysis results revealed that except contingent reward, other dimensions of transactional leadership styles had either weak or negative relationship with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Findings of previous studies indicated that management by exception (passive) and laissez-fair styles are the least effective forms of leader behavior (35) and are likely to have negative relation with job satisfaction (36). The reason why both management by exception (passive) and laissez-faire dimensions have negative relation with job satisfaction is that passive management by exception puts the subordinate under pressure in order to make him/her follow the desired standards, but it does not support individual resources (37) while Laissez-faire leaders do not attempted to make agreements with employees, to motivate them, to set standards or to give feedback (38).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

On the other hand, all dimensions of transformational leadership style were significantly and positively correlated with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Comparison of beta coefficients of transformational leadership dimensions indicated that intellectual stimulation had the strongest correlation with both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Previous research findings also showed that there is a statically significant positive relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction (24, 39).

The result of this study indicated that nurses who were working at Jimma University Specialized Hospital preferred managers who are transformational leaders. This implies that transformational leadership style promotes job satisfaction of nurses leading to improved performance and reducing the turnover of nurses. McClosky and McCain (40) found out that nurses' job performance increased proportionally with increased job satisfaction. Therefore, nurses managers should consider the following important points:

The mission and vision of the hospital should be clear to each nurse in order to enable him/her transform the mission and vision into ward objectives;NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Nurses should understand the jointly set goals and the nurse manager should foster innovative thinking to consider the existing working standard in a new way so as to improve individual and team productivity;

Nurse managers should develop more trust and confidence in their nurses and it is necessary that the former strive to empower the latter.

Nurse managers should be good role models for their nurses and avoid applying both management by exception (active and passive), and laissez-faire components because these have either little or adverse contribution to nurses' job satisfaction.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Furthermore, hospital administrators should facilitate training programs for nurse managers on leadership styles and their effects on job satisfaction in order to enable them to understand the components of effective nursing leadership style. Finally, further investigation on the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles and nurses' job satisfaction in private and public hospitals in Ethiopia in order to critically examine the effects of these two leadership styles on nurses' job satisfaction is recommended.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

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Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the following people: Sr. Rahel Aamre, Costantinos Berhe (PhD), all nurses who participated in this research, and Research, Graduate studies and Community Based Education Office of Jimma University.

Leaders are in best position to facilitate the changes because they are considered as change agents. Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes changes in individuals and social systems. The purpose of this study was to determine leadership styles of nurse managers and their outcomes in government hospitals in Hail City (Saudi Arabia). The study respondents were head nurses and nurses working in 4 government hospitals. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used to measure nurse manager leadership styles as perceived by nurses and the nurse managers themselves. There were no significant differences between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers themselves and the perception of the nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership styles (P = 0.719). When determining whether there was a significant association between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and the outcomes of that leadership, the results yielded a significant (moderate) relationship between a transformational leadership style and the outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (P = 0.000), effectiveness (P = 0.000), and satisfaction (P = 0.000).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Keywords: leadership, nursing, Saudi Arabia, Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, transformational leadership style

Copyright © 2017 Science and Education Publishing. All Rights Reserved.
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Bander Albagawi, Vivian Laput, Carmencita Pacis, Tahani AlMahmoud. Nurses’ Perceptions of Nurse Manager Leadership Styles. American Journal of Nursing Research. Vol. 5, No. 1, 2017, pp 22-31. http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajnr/5/1/3
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1. Introduction
Nursing is a demanding job. The role of nurses is one that has been regarded as stressful because it requires physical labor, engenders strong emotions to witnessing human suffering, and long hours of standing during work. It also involves problems in staffing and in dealing with interpersonal and cultural diversity, and stress caused by the increasing demands for nurses to adapt to the ever-growing advances in technology being utilized in health care, continuing rises in health care costs, and turbulence within the work environment [1].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Nurse leaders of today face challenges that focus not any more on the process of how care is delivered, but on the outcomes of care. Emphasis is on the standard provision of care that must be proven with proper documentation. There is also the focus on reporting of patient satisfaction, thus make the nurse leaders realize the weights of explicit accountability for managing and leading the staff responsible for providing the quality patient care [2].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Several authors have emphasized the importance of effective leadership in health care. Nursing leadership is pivotal because nurses represent the largest discipline in health care [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The present key challenge face by health care services organizations worldwide is to nurture an organizational culture that ensures the delivery of continuously improving high quality, safe, and compassionate health care. Leadership is the most influential factor in shaping organizational culture, and in ensuring that the necessary leadership behaviors, strategies, and qualities are developed. There is a compelling and urgent need for clinical governance which is considered a robust framework that acknowledges the importance of adopting a culture of shared accountability for sustaining and improving the quality of services and outcomes for both patients and staff [8].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Health care leadership must go beyond boundaries within and across any health care organization. Thus, working together as an organizational entity, leaders must manifest influencing, and empowering behaviors through effective communications in order to share and learn from and with each other in practice [9].

In Saudi Arabia, where the Saudization movement began in 2011, the nursing service is still facing an ongoing shortage of Saudi-born nurses, and especially Saudi-born nurse managers. The rapid turnover of nurses and nurse managers in our country has brought about challenges in the health care system, risking a crisis such as the one that occurred during the Gulf war in 1990 [10, 11].

Nurse leaders must help their staff navigate complex health care reform laws and keep patients satisfied with their care, while also keeping costs as low as possible and predicting the future needs of this rapidly changing industry. Numerous studies have shown that positively proactive leaders who lead by example are perceived as being more effective leaders, and staffs perform for them better [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Leadership models abound, and many have been adapted to health care settings [18, 19, 20, 21]. A competent and strong leadership is essential for the achievement of organizational goals. Thus, given the current nursing shortage in Saudi Arabia, it is important to reexamine the leadership styles of our nurse managers and the perceptions of their subordinates to determine which leadership styles could produce the most effective outcomes.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Leadership is defined as a process whereby an individual influences a group of other individuals to achieve a common goal. Because leaders and followers are both part of this process, it is important to address those issues that confront followers as also being issues that confront leaders. Leaders and followers should be understood in relation to each other [22].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Innovative leadership models and theories are salient in addressing the core competencies of contemporary nursing management, which are congruous with the needs of professional nursing practice and a consumer-responsive society [23]. Empirical research and theoretical literature offer many leadership styles. However, the merits of transformational leadership are gathering momentum because this style challenges the autocratic unilateral leadership models of former years. As with each leadership style, transformational leadership necessitates numerous attributes and conditions to effect its qualities successfully.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

In a study of nursing leadership in Saudi Arabia, it has been found that leadership is more effective with a transformational approach. Researchers have found hospital leadership to be an influential factor in job satisfaction by their subordinates [24, 25]. Research suggests that when hospital leadership encourages subordinate empowerment there is a direct link to increased subordinate job satisfaction and motivation [26]. Evidence has shown that empowered nurses shift their self-perceived role from being a subordinate to that of a collaborator. This encourages consensus building, improves job ownership, and improves trust and the follower’s motivation, sense of responsibility and organizational commitment [27, 28].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Reference [29] Bass and Avolio’s (1994) theory of transformational leadership served as the theoretical framework for this research study. Their theory has been widely used to determine the most effective leadership styles.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. They concluded that transformational leaders have the greatest positive effect on followers, compared with transactional or passive/avoidant leaders. First developed by Burns for political leaders, Bass and Avolio adapted the transformational theory for business organizations and created the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X to quantify leadership styles. Using the MLQ Form 5X, Bass and Avolio defined leaders as transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant. However, they stated that the most effective leaders were not truly transformational but also exhibited transactional qualities where necessary. Burns (1978) introduced this concept more completely in his book Leadership. Burns was highly inspired by Maslow’s Theory of Human Needs [30]. In 1985, Bass, a disciple of Burns, further developed the concept of transformational leadership by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership; Bass also used the term "transformational" instead of "transforming." Bass added to the initial concepts of Burns (1978) to help explain how transformational leadership could be measured, as well as how it impacts follower motivation and performance. Specifically, he suggested that transformational leaders should try to transform their followers by raising their awareness regarding task outcomes, and by encouraging them to transcend their own self-interest for the interest of the organization, as well as activating their higher order needs.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. By grouping certain leadership traits, Bass identified three basic types of leadership style: transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire (or inactive). The transactional type specifies tasks, monitors performance, and seeks to achieve the desired outcome by providing a reward system. Transformational leadership aims to motivate employees by inspiring them and providing them with individual attention, while also stimulating their intellectual needs. The third type, laissez-faire leadership, involves remaining aloof from the responsibilities of leadership, instead leading from a distance [29].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

2. Methods
The purpose of this study was to determine the leadership styles of the nurse managers and their outcomes in four government-based hospitals in Hail City.

Specific research questions to be addressed were as follows.

1. Define the profiles of nurse managers and staff nurses in terms of:

a. Age

b. Gender

c. Nationality

d. Educational attainment

e. Hospital location

f. Years of experience

g. Trainings attended

h. Salary

2. Define the leadership styles of nurse managers as perceived by:

a. Staff nurses

b. Nurse managers themselves

3. Is there a significant difference in the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers when they are grouped according to their profile?

4. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership style when they are grouped according to their profile?NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

5. Is there a significant difference in the perceptions of leadership styles of the nurse managers between the staff nurses and the nurse managers themselves?

6. What are the outcomes of the nurse managers’ leadership styles as perceived by the subordinates (staff nurses) in terms of:

a. Extra effort

b. Effectiveness

c. Satisfaction

7. Is there a significant relationship between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and the outcomes of their leadership?

2.1.Ethical Considerations
Before the study, approval was obtained from an Ethics Committee in the University of Hail (EC#173), official permission was obtained from the Department of Health Affairs in Hail region, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Moreover, participants who completed the questionnaire survey also filled out an informed consent form agreeing to participate in the study. Study participants were briefed on the study purpose and process, as well as their right to withdraw participation at any time without any adverse effect on their employment status. In this research project, we conform to the provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki in 1995 (as revised in Brazil 2013) [31].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

3. Results
3.1. Data Analysis
After data were collected, the questionnaires were checked for the completeness and consistency of responses. Analysis was performed using IBM Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Statistics 20 software. The results were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency distributions and percentages to determine the demographic profile of the respondents and inferential statistics such as Student’s t test, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Pearson product–moment correlation to establish if there is difference or relationship among and between variables.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

1. Result shows that most of the nurse managers and staff nurses are aged between 20 – 30 years of age who were females that are Saudi Nationals. A lot finished their Bachelor’s degree only were a bulk of the nurse managers came from Maternity Hospital and staff nurses from King Khalid Hospital. Majority of the respondents served the hospital less than 10 years and most don’t attend trainings.

2. The identified leadership styles of nurse managers fairly often displayed transformational leadership (3.03) sometimes of transactional leadership (2.22) and laissez-faire once in a while with (1.05). On the other hand, staff nurses believed that they are managed by their superiors utilizing transformational leadership style (2.85) which is ranked first and seconded by transactional leadership (2.30). Further, results also reveal that Laissez-faire leadership is employed by their superiors only once in a while as evaluated by the respondents (1.38).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

3. There is a significant difference noted in the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers when grouped according to hospital they were connected (ρ = 0.005); nationality (ρ = 0.002) and in terms of their salary (ρ = 0.004). However, there is no significant difference in their perceived leadership style when they are clustered according to their educational attainment (ρ = 0.232); gender (ρ = 0.292); age (ρ = 0.851); years of experience (ρ = 0.533); and on the trainings they attended (ρ = 0.484).

4. There is a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on their nurse managers’ leadership styles when they are group according to salary received (ρ = 0.005). On the other hand, no significant difference was evident when respondents were grouped according to their age (ρ = 0.497), hospital connected (ρ = 0.127), years of experience (ρ = 0.553) and educational attainment (ρ = 0.169).

5. There is no significant difference in the perceived leadership styles between the nurse managers and staff nurses’ perception on the nurse managers leadership styles (ρ = 0.719).

6. As perceived by the staff nurses the leadership style of nurse managers as regard to outcomes leadership reveal that all three dimensions of outcomes leadership namely extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction are perceived by them to be fairly often evident in their management leadership behavior (2.92).

7. There is a significant relationship between the transformational leadership to the outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (ρ = 0.000), effectiveness (ρ = 0.000), and satisfaction (ρ = 0.000). In like manner, when nurse managers continuously display transactional leadership, the outcomes of leadership although it reveals low relationship but is increasing too in the areas of extra effort (ρ =0.029) and effectiveness (ρ = 0.008) but no significant relationship is evident in terms of satisfaction (ρ = 0.518). However, the nurse managers laissez-faire leadership has no relationship in their outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (ρ = 0.913), effectiveness (ρ = 0.155), and satisfaction (P=0.985).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

4. Discussion
This descriptive study has provided insight into nurse managers’ leadership characteristics in hospital settings in Hail City. Results indicated similar perceptions of the leadership styles of nurse managers between head nurse respondents and staff nurse respondents. This contradicts the study of [32] on nursing management leadership styles, which observed that subordinates disagree almost totally with their managers’ opinion about their managerial leadership style. Both groups of respondents perceived that there was correlation between outcomes of leadership and transformational leadership styles as reflected in the results were often demonstrated.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers. These findings imply that the nurse managers as well as the staff nurses had common perceptions that outcomes leadership and transformational leadership styles prevailed in this environment. On the one hand, [33] emphasized the importance of transformational leadership, which indicates the need for further attention to training and development of effective leadership behaviors. On the other hand, [34] claimed that transformational leadership in nursing has been associated with highly performing teams and improved patient care. Furthermore, both nurse managers and staff nurses believed that laissez-faire leadership behavior was manifested occasionally. The low scores for this leadership style indicate that it had a negative effect on desired outcomes. A nurse manager has an important role in leading the work unit as a whole. In the study by [35], nurses reported that nursing leadership was considered as being present and available in daily work, because a work unit is seen as a reflection of the nurse leader’s leadership style. Additionally, [36] emphasized that leaders should encourage their employees to develop goals and plan to achieve them, thereby influencing their professional development. Nurse leaders are strongly expected to be self-motivated, to share common goals, and they must possess the internal drive to finish the job at hand because they have important roles in the administration of the nursing organization and affect people’s lives and attitudes towards their profession [37].NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Despite the lack of significant differences in the perception of leadership styles between nurse managers and staff nurses, the nurse managers scored transactional leadership style considerably lower than did the staff nurses. This finding is consistent with those of [38] and [13], which stressed that nurse managers perceived themselves as having fewer transactional behaviors than the staff nurses’ perceptions. In the study conducted by [39], there was a positive association between the satisfaction levels among employees and the styles of leadership (transactional and transformational). The staff believed that there was a greater use of transactional and transformational styles of leadership by the nurse managers. [40] as well as [41] concurred with such a finding. In the present study, the staff nurses believed that their nurse managers used transformational leadership more often than other styles.

5. Conclusion and Recommendation
The findings of this study indicate that information about a nurse manager’s perception of their own leadership style and the perception of the staff nurses on nurse managers’ leadership behavior will provide directions for the continuing education and professional development of future leaders. The unanimity of the respondents’ perception on the leadership style of the nurse managers gave a clear picture of the nurse manager’s skills and knowledge in the use of different leadership styles because both the nurse managers and their staff nurses did evaluations. These evaluations highlight the need for head nurses to reflect more on their practices and somehow to find new ways for further enhancement of their transformational- and outcome-based leadership styles, which are believed to be most effective in bringing about positive outcomes for health care providers and patients.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

5.1.Recommendation
In today’s health care environment, there is a need to develop leadership behaviors that are proven effective in implementing positive and adaptive behaviors among nurse leaders. It is important that nurse managers be given the opportunity and training to hone their management skills further. From the results of this study, it is evident that managers need access to continued leadership training and feedback from staff nurses on their leadership behaviors.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Acknowledgements
All authors would like to the thank University of Hail (UoH) for providing funds to support this research project. Our special thanks are extended to the nursing managers and staff who participated in this research.

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Appendix A Results in Tables
Problem 1. Define the profiles of nurse managers and staff nurses in terms of:
a. Age

b. Gender

c. Nationality

d. Educational attainment

e. Hospital location

f. Years of experience

g. Trainings attended

g. Salary

Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Nurse Managers and Staff Nurses

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Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the thirty eight (38) nurse manager-respondents according to age, gender, nationality, educational attainment, hospital location, years of experience and salary. The data reveal that the age range of the subjects was 20-64 with the highest percentage (55.3%) falling between 20-30 years of age. In terms of gender, 76.3% of the respondents were females while the remaining 23.7% were males. The table also highlights that most (68.4%) of the participants were Saudi nationals who obtained a bachelor’s degree in nursing (65.8%). As to hospital location, many (34.2%) respondents were employed in Maternity Hospital who held 1-10 (68.4%) years of experience as nurse mangers. Further, a majority of the respondents indicated a no (55.3%) response to trainings attended however, receiving a monthly salary of 10 001-15 000 SR (47.4%).

In like manner, the table also displays the demographic profile of the staff nurse-respondents (N=196) in relation to age, gender, nationality, educational attainment, hospital location, years of experience, trainings attended and salary. Participants in this study were primarily aged 20-30 years (64.3%) dominated by females (87.2%) who were Saudi nationals (60.2%). The highest level of education reported by the participants is master’s degree; however, most of them are holders of bachelor’s degree in nursing (54.1%). Moreover, many (45.4%) of the respondents were employed in King Khalid Hospital and least of them were affiliated with Hail Mental Hospital (10.2%). A greater majority of the staff nurse respondents indicated a no (84.2%) response with respect to trainings attended and as regards to salary, most of them received a monthly compensation of 10 001-15 000 SR (65.8%) which is similar to the salary received by head nurse respondents.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Problem 2. Define the leadership styles of nurse managers as perceived by:
a. Nurse managers themselves

b. Staff nurses

Table 2. Leadership Style of the Nurse Managers as rated by themselves and Staff Nurses

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Table 2 displays the mean response of nurse managers’ perception of their leadership style and perception of staff nurses on the leadership style of their nurse managers. In terms of transformational leaderships, results indicate that head nurses fairly often influenced their subordinates through employment of all five critical strategies of transformational leadership: attributed idealized influence; behavioral idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration (3.03). The results imply that nurse managers consistently employ transformational leadership in managing their staff. In like manner, the staff nurses’ responses of “fairly often” to all dimensions reflect that they believe their superiors to be demonstrating the characteristics of a transformational leader. According to reference [42], transformational leadership is widely believed to be the most effective leadership style and utilizing this style tends to bring about positive outcomes.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Descriptive statistics of perceived leadership style of head nurses in terms of transactional leadership factors is also shown in Table 2 which include contingent reward, active management-by-exception and passive management-by-exception (2.22). The results show that nurse managers perceived themselves to fairly often demonstrate contingent reward and active management by perceptions and once in a while exhibit passive management by exception. Moreover, the staff nurses also perceived that the nurse managers do sometimes display transactional leadership (2.30)

The findings on the self-evaluation of nurse managers’ perception of their leadership behavior in terms of laissez-faire leadership style reveal a mean of 1.05 which indicates a once in a while manifestation where staff nurses have the same observation on the leadership style of their nurse managers in regard to laissez-faire leadership (1.38).

Overall, the data show that among the identified leadership styles of nurse managers, the respondents perceived that they fairly often displayed transformational leadership (3.03) styles. Moreover, they perceive to sometimes demonstrate transactional leadership and once in a while employ laissez-faire leadership. Staff nurses believed that they are managed by their superiors utilizing Transformational leadership (2.85) and Transactional leadership (2.30). Further, results also reveal that Laissez-faire leadership is employed by their superiors only once in a while as evaluated by the respondents.

Problem 3. Is there a significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the nurse managers when they are grouped according to their profile?
Table 3. Difference in the Perceived Leadership Style of the Nurse Managers According to their profile

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Table 3 shows the significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the head nurses according to their profile. The results indicate that regardless of age the head nurses had the same perceived leadership styles (P=0.851). As regard to years of experience, the nurse managers also had the same perception on their leadership styles (P=0.553). However, a significant difference can be noted in the perceived leadership styles of the respondents when grouped according to hospital they were connected (P=0.005), and in terms of their salary (0.004).

Table 4. Difference in the Perceived Leadership Styles of the Nurse Managers According to their Profile

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Shown in Table 4 is the significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the nurse managers according to their nationality, educational attainment, gender and training. The table presents a significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the respondents in terms of their nationality (P=0.002) while there is no significant difference in their perceived leadership style when they are clustered according to their educational attainment (P=0.232), gender (P=0.292) and on the trainings they attended (P=0.484).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Problem 4. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership style when they are group according to their profiles?
Table 5. Difference in the Perception of the Staff Nurses on the Nurse Managers Leadership Styles According to their profile

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The significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on the head nurses’ leadership style according to their profile. As depicted in Table 5, there is a significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on their nurse managers’ leadership styles when they are group according to salary received (P=0.005). On the other hand, no significant difference was evident when respondents were grouped according to their age (P=0.497), hospital employed (P=0.127), years of experience (P=0.553) and educational attainment (P=0.169).

Table 6. Difference in the Perception of the Staff Nurses on the Nurse Managers’ Leadership Style According to their profile

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Table 6 presents the significant difference in the perception of the staff nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership style in terms of nationality, gender and training. As shown in the table, there is a significant difference in term of gender (P=0.039) and trainings attended (P=0.014) while there was no significance revealed when respondents were grouped according to nationality (P=0.243).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Problem 5. Is there a significant difference in the perceptions of leadership styles of the nurse managers between the staff nurses and the nurse managers themselves?
Table 7. Difference in the Perceptions of Leadership Styles of the Nurse Managers between the Staff Nurses and the Nurse Managers Themselves

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Shown in Table 7 is the significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the head nurses and staff nurses’ perception on the head nurses’ leadership style. As depicted in Table 7, there is no significant difference in the perceived leadership style of the nurse managers and the perception of the staff nurses on the nurse managers’ leadership style (P=0.719).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Problem 6. What are the outcomes of the nurse managers’ leadership styles as perceived by the subordinates (staff nurses) in terms of:
a. Extra effort

b. Effectiveness

c. Satisfaction

Table 8. Perception of the Staff Nurses on the Outcomes Leadership Style of the Nurse Managers

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As perceived by the staff nurses the leadership style of nurse managers as regard to outcomes leadership reveal that all three dimensions of outcomes leadership namely extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction are perceived by them to be fairly often evident in their management leadership behavior (2.92).

Problem 7. Is there a significant relationship between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and its outcomes of leadership?
Table 9. Relationship of the Perceived Leadership Styles between the Nurse Managers and its Outcomes of Leadership

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Table 9 shows the significant relationship between the perceived leadership styles of the nurse managers and its outcomes of leadership. As reflected in the table, there is a significant relationship between the transformational leadership to the outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (P=0.000), effectiveness (P=0.000), and satisfaction (P=0.000). This implies that as the nurse managers’ exhibit transformational leadership to their staff, the outcomes of leadership moderately increases. In like manner, when nurse managers continuously display transactional leadership, the outcomes of leadership although it reveals low relationship but is increasing too in the areas of extra effort (P=0.029) and effectiveness (P=0.008) but no significant relationship is evident in terms of satisfaction (P=0.518).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

However, when the perceived nurse managers’ leadership style was related to the outcomes of leadership, it resulted to P-values greater than the level of significance. It can be inferred that the nurse managers laissez-faire leadership has no relationship in their outcomes of leadership in terms of extra effort (P=0.913), effectiveness (P=0.155), and satisfaction (P=0.985).NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

IJSRM is a online open access journal that publishes articles in the field of Computer Science, Engineering, medical science, social science, economics, clinical research, mathematics, education, bio science, science, Management & Arts . It is an international journal to encourage research publication to research scholars, academicians, professionals and students engaged in their respective field. The journal also provides an international forum to disseminate their knowledge.

Our mission is to advance research by working to develop and maintain competence, ethics and integrity and the highest professional standards in the specialty for the benefit of the public. The Faculty seeks, through its activities, to bring about an improvement in research of the public.

Editorial Policy

Authors should prepare their manuscripts according to the instructions given in the authors' guidelines. Manuscripts which do not conform to the format and style of the Journal may be returned to the authors for revision or rejected. The Journal reserves the right to make any further formal changes and language corrections necessary in a manuscript accepted for publication so that it conforms to the formatting requirements of the Journal.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Important notice

Authors can now directly send their manuscript as an email attachment to [email protected]

All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay. First-time users are required to register themselves as an author before making submissions by signing up the author registration form at journals website

With the online journal management system that we are using, authors will be able to track manuscripts progress through the editorial process by logging in as author in authors Dashboard.

Top Reasons for publication with us

Quick Quality Review: The journal has strong international team of editors and reviewers, Rapid Decision and Publication

Very Low Publication Fees: Comparable journals charge a huge sum for each accepted manuscript. IJSRM only charge the fees necessary to recoup cost associated with running the journal

Join us for our interactive Facebook live open event on 3 June at 17:30-18:00. Meet the course director and find out more information on the course. Please email [email protected] to register your interest.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Applications for the 2019–20 academic year are open now and will close at the end of July 2019.

The MSc in Medical Leadership is designed specifically for doctors to help them deal with the modern-day pressures and situations they face as leaders in the medical world.
Programme overview
This postgraduate master's degree qualification (MSc) is a CPD accredited course, taught at RCP London, which can be completed in 3–5 years. This is a cumulative programme and early exit with a Certificate (after year one) or Diploma (after year two) is possible. There are 12 contact days in both the Certificate level and Diploma level of the course allowing likeminded professionals to network and learn from others’ experiences.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This programme has been designed in line with the medical leadership competency framework to provide a comprehensive coverage of leadership and management, focusing on the needs of senior clinicians, balancing academic rigour and workplace-based application in recognised healthcare environments. The overall aim is to provide participants with a firm foundation to go on to attain senior levels of management within the field of health, such as clinical directors, medical directors or chief executives.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

The RCP has access to some of today’s most eminent leaders in healthcare who collaborate with the teaching staff to deliver real-life case studies and guest speaker sessions. These case studies are presented throughout the modules, by postgraduate deans, medical directors and hospital chief executives, putting the academic content into a clinical context. In addition, guest speakers talk honestly about a current or recent issue in their roles, and promote discussion and awareness of the real problems in medical leadership allowing for insight into their personal career paths and leadership experiences.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Earlier this year, Professor Tissington took questions regarding the course from prospective students. This video also looks at the course structure of the MSc in Medical Leadership.
MSc in Medical Leadership – course dates and deadlines 2019–20 397.34 KB
Guest speakers
One of the hallmarks of this programme is its interactive sessions with some of today’s most eminent leaders in healthcare. Real-life case studies are presented throughout the modules, putting the academic content into a clinical context. This is an exclusive opportunity for students, and one which sets this master’s programme apart from others.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Entry requirements
The MSc in Medical Leadership is open to fully qualified medical doctors practising within any specialty, with a minimum of 1–2 years of higher specialist training (StR 3–4) or equivalent.

It is important that the application form includes details of the applicant's roles, responsibilities and interest in medical leadership.

International applicants
Individuals who are nationals of a country from outside the European Economic Area or Switzerland will be required to obtain a short-term study visa when coming to the UK for study periods. Depending on your nationality you can apply for this visa either upon entry to the UK, or in advance at the British embassy / high commission in your country of residence.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

To ensure that Birkbeck meets Home Office requirements, you will be asked to present your original passport with short-term study visa when you arrive to begin your studies.

If you have any questions on this please contact the International Student Administration team at Birkbeck on +44 (0)20 3926 3100 or [email protected].

Fees 2019–20
Programme fees are paid to Birkbeck, who offer students flexible arrangements to make payments in instalments:

Postgraduate Certificate (first year of study) – £5,375
Postgraduate Diploma (second year of study) – £5,375
Masters (third year of study) – £5,375.

For this Assignment, you explore one challenge that you would like to see addressed in your organization or one with which you are familiar. You will continue to work on this Assignment over the next several weeks. You will prepare an outline for this assignment due day 7 of week 5. This outline will help organize your work toward this assignment.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

This Assignment also serves as your Portfolio Assignment.

To prepare:

• Identify a problem that you would like to investigate for this Assignment. Consider the resources and discussion about strategic planning and models that guide change such as SWOT, Balanced Scorecard, or Six Sigma and lean principles. Review evidence-based literature for data related to your selected problem. You will need to use at least five current (not more than five years old), peer-reviewed articles. If you cannot find adequate evidence, you may need to refine your topic. Your Instructor may provide some guidance for your literature search.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

By Day 7 of Week 2, enter your selected problem in the Strategic Planning for Change Forum of the Discussion Board.

Your Instructor will approve your selected problem or provide feedback to help you refine your focus for this Assignment.

While this portion of the Assignment is not graded, it is required.

Once you have received feedback/approval of your selected problem:

• Reflect on the topics you are examining in this course and consider how they relate to your selected problem. Plan to analyze the problem using principles, theories, and concepts related to leadership and management, as well as other pertinent course themes.

• Review evidence-based literature for data related to your selected problem. You will need to use at least five current (not more than five years old), peer-reviewed articles. Your Instructor may provide some guidance for your literature search.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

• Synthesize findings from the research literature and/or drawn from other sources of evidence.

• Develop evidence-based recommendations for addressing the problem.

© Laureate Education, Inc. 2

Write a 6-page paper (not including title page, references, or any appendix) that addresses the following:

• Introduction/Statement of the problem (1/2 page)

• Review of the literature for potential solutions to the identified problem

• Synthesis of the evidence as applied to the stated problem.

• Strategic plan for suggested courses of action based on your evidence and including application of a change theory.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

• Conclusion/Summary

Reminder: The School of Nursing requires that all papers submitted include a title page, introduction, summary, and references. The Sample Paper provided at the Walden Writing Center provides an example of those required elements (available at http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm). All papers submitted must use this formatting.

So you have all key information available to you off-line, it is highly recommended that you print the following items for your reference:

· Syllabus, including the Course Schedule, located below as a linked PDF

· Term Calendar

· Student Support

Credit Hours

5 quarter hours

Walden University assigns credit hours based on the number and type of assignments that enable students to achieve the course learning objectives. In general, each semester credit equals about 42 hours of total student work and each quarter credit equals about 28 hours of total student work. This time requirement represents an approximate average for undergraduate work and the minimum expectations for graduate work. The number and kind of activities estimated to fulfill time requirements will vary by degree level and student learning style, and by student familiarity with the delivery method and course content.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Description

Students in this course apply the MSN curriculum experience by translating knowledge into practice through participation in professional activities and the development of a culminating project. Students apply theory, principles, and concepts related to their area of specialization in order to enhance nursing practice and promote positive social change. Note: This course requires a minimum of 144 practicum hours.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Prerequisites

Students must have completed all Core Courses:

· NURS 6001: Foundations for Graduate Study

· NURS 6050: Policy and Advocacy for Improving Population Health

· NURS 6051: Transforming Nursing and Healthcare Through Technology

· NURS 6052: Essentials of Evidence-Based Practice

· NURS 6053: Interprofessional Organizational and Systems Leadership

Plus area of specialization courses:

Leadership and Management Specialization:

· NURS 6201: Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare

· NURS 6211: Finance and Economics in Healthcare Delivery

· NURS 6221: Managing Human Resources

· NURS 6231: Healthcare Systems and Quality Outcomes

· NURS 6241: Strategic Planning in Health Care Organizations

Nursing Informatics Specialization:

· NURS 6401: Informatics in Nursing and Healthcare

· NURS 6411: Information and Knowledge Management

· NURS 6421: Supporting Workflow in Healthcare Systems

· NURS 6441: Project Management: Healthcare Information Technology

· NURS 6431: Evaluation Methods for Health Information and Technology

Course Outcomes

· Create professional development objectives for the Practicum Experience

· Apply theory as it relates to a practicum and/or practice experiences

· Apply knowledge and expertise to address a health care problem in a practicum setting

· Evaluate Practicum Experiences

· Evaluate the achievement of individualized and Practicum Project objectives

· Apply methods for disseminating outcomes of the Practicum Project

· Evaluate opportunities for continued professional growth

Son Alignment of Learner Outcomes

Click on the following link to access the SON Alignment of Learner Outcomes: NURS 6600 SON Alignment of Learner Outcomes (PDF)

Course Materials

Students will be provided the following course materials. For missing, incorrect, or damaged materials, please contact the Student Support Team. Contact information for the Student Support Team can be located in the Student Support area of the course navigation menu.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Text

There is no course text for this course. However, other readings (journal articles, websites, book excerpts, etc.) are assigned throughout the course and may be found within each week and within the Course Schedule.

Course Readings List

The Course Readings List contains all of the required Walden Library resources for this course. Please click on the following link to access the list: NURS 6600 Course Readings List

Media

Assigned course media elements may be found in one or more weeks of the course and are available via a streaming media player or a hyperlink to the individual item.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Schedule

For full assignment details and directions, refer to each week.

All assignments are due by 11:59 p.m. Mountain Time (MT) on the day assigned (which is 1:59 a.m. Eastern Time (ET) the next day). The time stamp in the classroom will reflect Eastern Time (ET), regardless of your time zone. As long as your submission time stamp is no later than 1:59 a.m. Eastern Time (ET), you have submitted on time.

Click the following link to access the Course Schedule: NURS 6600 Course Schedule (PDF)

Course Calendar

A printable course calendar is located in the Term Calendar area of the course navigation menu.

Dedicated Support for Course Media

You may use the following e-mail address and toll-free number for any questions or concerns you have about media in the course.

E-mail: [email protected]

Phone: 1-877-238-2963

Primary and Secondary Sources

Review the following information prior to selecting resources for assignments.

Primary: A primary source is an original document that is the first account of what happened. A research report is primary, and you can tell because it includes materials and methods demonstrating how the research was done. Some creative work is also primary, such as poetry, novels, and interviews of people who experienced something firsthand. In nursing, which is an evidence-based discipline, we strive to use primary research that is published in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Scholarly, peer-reviewed journal: Scholarly journals publish papers by professional authors and experts in the field using a peer-review process to review the work and assure quality before publishing. The focus of a scholarly journal is to provide accurate information for scholars and other researchers. The focus is on content rather than advertising, a direct contrast to popular media. Scholarly journals publish both primary and secondary papers, the former usually noted as original research and the latter as reviews and commentaries. Letters to the editor may also be published but should be recognized as opinion pieces.

Note: When selecting articles for course assignments, you are advised (unless you are referencing seminal information) to focus on work published within the past five years.

Secondary: A secondary source is one step removed from the original source. This work interprets and often compiles other work, and it includes review articles, textbooks, fact sheets, and commentaries about a topic. It also includes news reports of original research. Secondary work is more prone to error and bias than primary work because it is being filtered through an additional person or persons. Review papers can be useful to glean information about a topic and to find other sources from the reference list, but it is the original, primary research that should be relied on most heavily in demonstrating scholarship, depth, and validation of factual information.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Assignments

1. Participation in weekly Discussions: The exchange of ideas among colleagues engaged in scholarly inquiry is a key aspect of learning and is a requisite activity in this course. You are expected to participate each week by posting a response to a prompt or question in the weekly Discussion area. Discussion topics/questions are provided in the Discussion area under each weekly button. In addition, you are expected to respond to your fellow students’ postings. NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.To count as participation, responses need to be thoughtful; that is, they must refer to the week’s readings, relevant issues in the news, information obtained from other sources, and/or ideas expressed in the postings of other class members. You may ask questions or offer further information or links about the subject. Please pay attention to grammar and spelling, as consistently poorly written posts will receive grade penalties. In grading the required Discussion postings, your Instructor will be using the Formative Evaluative Criteria for Discussion Board Assignments rubric located in the Course Information area of the course navigation menu. Note: Unless otherwise noted, initial postings to Discussions are due on or before Day 3, and response postings are due on or before Day 6. You are required to participate in the Discussion on at least three different days. It is important to adhere to the weekly time frame to allow others ample time to respond to your posting. In addition, you are expected to respond to questions directed toward your own initial posting in a timely manner.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

2. Application Assignments: The Application Assignments provide you with the opportunity to apply the skills and knowledge gained through the Learning Resources. See the Assignment area of specific weeks for detailed descriptions of the assignments. In grading the required Application Assignments, your Instructor will be using rubrics located in the Course Information area of the course navigation menu.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

3. Practicum Journal/Time Log: This course includes a 144-hour practicum. The practicum is an active learning experience that provides you with the opportunity to apply your nursing knowledge in a community or public health setting. You will apply the concepts and skills that you are acquiring in NURS 6600 with guidance from your Instructor under the direction of a mentor. The practicum is a minimum of 144 hours. Students must keep a log of the time they spend related to their practicum experience. Time Logs are accessed from the Welcome Page of the Meditreck Account. Hours must be inputted daily throughout the term and are reviewed by the instructor in Weeks 3, 7, and 11.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Grading Criteria and Total Components of a Grade

Course grades will be based on participation (postings) and completion of assignments listed below.

Grading Scale

Letter grades will be assigned as follows:

90%–100%

= A

80%–89%

= B

70%–79%

= C

<70%

= F

Please see below for the policy on Incomplete (I) grades.

Important Note: This course contains weighted grading. Assignments are weighted differently depending on their type. The total points achieved for each assignment will be weighted based on the percentage values noted in the Weighted Total (%) column of the table that follows.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Assignment

Total Points

Weighted Total (%)

Discussions

· Participation in Discussions* (8 @ 100 points each)

800

30%

Application Assignments:

· Week 1: Practicum Professional Experience Plan (100 points)

· Week 3: Time Log (100 points) and Journal Entry (100 points)

· Week 5: Practicum Project Plan (100 points)

· Week 7: Time Log (100 points) and Journal Entry (100 points)

· Week 9: Practicum Project Poster Abstract (100 points)

· Week 10: Practicum Project Presentation (100 points)

· Week 11: Time Log (100 points), Journal Entry (100 points), and Professional Portfolio (S/U)

1,000

70%

Total

1,800

100%

* Each Discussion requires that you make one initial posting and at least two response postings to colleagues. See the Formative Evaluative Criteria for Discussion Board Assignments Rubric for posting details.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Incomplete Grade Policy

Per University policy, Incomplete grades can be granted only to students who have already met the minimum criteria for active weekly participation in a course (including weekly postings in online courses) and have completed at least 80% of other coursework. Incompletes can be awarded when, because of extenuating circumstances, a student has not met additional course requirements, including but not limited to written assignments, group projects, and research papers, as applicable. All Incomplete grades are awarded at the discretion of the course faculty. (Reproduced from the Student Catalog)

Students who are eligible for an Incomplete must contact the course Faculty Member to request the grade as soon as possible. Students who do not meet the criteria listed above will not be allowed to earn an Incomplete. If the Incomplete is approved, the Faculty Member will work with the student to outline the due date(s) for remaining work. Under no circumstances will the new due dates extend beyond 50 days from the last day of the term. Faculty will then have 10 days to assess the work and post the permanent grade before the University-allotted Incomplete time limit of 60 days expires. All Incomplete grades not resolved within the time allotted will convert to permanent grades of F.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Instructor Feedback Schedule

The Instructor will log in to the course during the week to monitor the weekly Discussion area. Feedback will be provided via comments in the My Grades area, the Discussion area, and/or the Announcements page.

You can expect your weekly assignment grades to be posted within 10 calendar days of a due date. Instructor feedback and explanation is provided whenever full credit is not achieved. Depending on the nature of the feedback, Instructor responses may be posted to the Discussion area or included in the My Grades area. The goal of your Instructor is to act as a discussion and learning facilitator rather than a lecturer. The Instructor will not respond to every posting by every individual, so please feel free to ask your Instructor if you would like some personal feedback on a particular assignment posting or any time you have any questions regarding your assignments or your grade.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Course Procedures

All class Discussions take place in the weekly Discussion areas.

You are encouraged to post course-related questions to the Contact the Instructor area of the course navigation menu, as they may be of interest to all; however, if your question is urgent, it is often best to e-mail the Instructor. If your e-mailed question is thought to be of benefit to all, it may be responded to by the Instructor via e-mail to all or posted as an announcement.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Instructor feedback on content and writing issues that is thought to be of benefit to the entire class may be posted to the Contact the Instructor area; however, most personal critique will be done privately in the My Grades area. Be sure to check the My Grades area for comments every week, even if you received full credit.

Please feel free to use the Class Café to initiate and participate in conversations not directly related to the course. This is an excellent opportunity to get to know other students better. The Instructor will browse theClass Café occasionally, but generally will not respond to conversations posted there unless students have specific questions for him or her.

Check the e-mail account you use for official Walden University business on a regular basis. The expectation is that you are checking this e-mail account daily during the week. If you experience difficulty sending or receiving Walden e-mail, please contact the Student Support Team right away. Contact information for the Student Support Team is located in the Student Support area of the course navigation menu.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Review all materials in the Course Information area, as well as the materials contained under each of the weekly buttons. Please note: There may be Optional Readings located within the Learning Resources section of each week in the course. You are encouraged to explore these readings as needed in order to enhance your understanding of the course content.

Preferred Methods for Delivering Assignments

Be sure that you post to the correct Discussion area each week. Do not e-mail postings to the Instructor. For all initial Discussion postings, make sure that the first sentence of your posting reads Main Question Post. For your responses to others’ response postings, make sure that the first sentence of your response readsResponse. These actions will ensure easily identifiable subject lines for your postings and responses.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Application Assignments are submitted and named according to the week in which the Assignment is submitted. Directions for naming each Application Assignment are included in each week’s Assignment area. Please be sure that all written Application Assignments are saved and submitted as “.doc” files.

All e-mail correspondence must contain in the subject line “NURS 6600-XX-NAME” (XX is the section number) followed by a brief description of the subject. This subject line convention ensures that your e-mail will be easily identified and responded to in a timely manner. It is required that the e-mail contain a signature that matches the official name used in the course.

Late Assignment Policy

Students are expected to submit assignments by the due dates noted in the course. In extenuating circumstances, such as illness, the student must contact the Instructor as soon as possible to discuss the situation. In those circumstances, faculty will determine the appropriate course of action for the student. Depending on the situation, these actions may include recommendations to drop the course (if within the University drop/withdrawal period), acceptance of some or all of the overdue assignments with or without penalties, or refusal to accept assignments.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Assignments submitted late without prior agreement of the Instructor, outside of an emergency absence, or in violation of agreements for late submission, will receive a grade reduction for the assignment amounting up to 20%. After 5 days, the assignment will not be graded. Students should be aware that late assignments may not receive the same level of written feedback as do assignments submitted on time.

Keeping Your Course Work

You will have access to the course and your coursework from the course start date until 60 days after the course ends. After this time, you will no longer be able to access the course or related materials. For this reason, we strongly recommend that you retain copies of your completed assignments and any documents you wish to keep. The University is not responsible for lost or missing coursework.

Course Evaluation

At or near the end of the course, you will receive an e-mail inviting you to submit an online evaluation of the course and instruction. All submitted course evaluations are confidential, and only aggregate data and comments will be shared with the Instructor and Program Director. Your feedback is vitally important to Walden University in its efforts to continuously improve programs.

Classroom Participation

In accordance with U.S. Department of Education guidance regarding class participation, Walden University requires that all students submit at least one of their required Week 1 assignments (which includes posting to the Discussion Board) within each course(s) during the first 7 calendar days of class. For courses with two-week units, posting to the Discussion Board by Day 7 meets this requirement. The first calendar day of class is the official start date of the course as posted on your myWalden academic page.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.

Assignments submitted prior to the official start date will not count toward your participation.

Financial Aid cannot be released without class participation as defined above.

Students who are taking their first class with Walden and do not submit at least one of their required Week 1 assignments (or at least one Discussion post) by the end of the 7th day will be administratively withdrawn from the university.

Students who have already taken and successfully completed at least one or more class(es) with Walden, and who do not participate within the first 7 days, will be dropped from that class.

If you have any questions about your assignments, or you are unable to complete your assignments, please contact your Faculty Member.NURS 6201 - Leadership in Nursing and Healthcare Assignment Papers.